Saturn's polar stratosphere exhibits the seasonal growth and dissipation of broad, warm vortices poleward of ~75° latitude, which are strongest in the summer and absent in winter. The longevity of ...the exploration of the Saturn system by Cassini allows the use of infrared spectroscopy to trace the formation of the North Polar Stratospheric Vortex (NPSV), a region of enhanced temperatures and elevated hydrocarbon abundances at millibar pressures. We constrain the timescales of stratospheric vortex formation and dissipation in both hemispheres. Although the NPSV formed during late northern spring, by the end of Cassini's reconnaissance (shortly after northern summer solstice), it still did not display the contrasts in temperature and composition that were evident at the south pole during southern summer. The newly formed NPSV was bounded by a strengthening stratospheric thermal gradient near 78°N. The emergent boundary was hexagonal, suggesting that the Rossby wave responsible for Saturn's long-lived polar hexagon-which was previously expected to be trapped in the troposphere-can influence the stratospheric temperatures some 300 km above Saturn's clouds.
Context.
Past observations of Saturn with ground-based and space telescopes have enabled the monitoring of tropospheric wind speeds using cloud-tracking techniques. The most remarkable feature is a ...broad and fast prograde jet at the equator that reaches speeds of ~400 m s
−1
. Saturn’s stratospheric dynamics are less well-known. At low latitudes, they are characterized by the thermal signature of an equatorial oscillation; the observed thermal structure implies that there is a strong oscillating vertical shear of the zonal winds throughout the stratosphere. However, wind speeds in this region cannot be measured by cloud-tracking techniques and remain unknown.
Aims.
The objective of this study is to measure directly and for the first time the zonal winds in Saturn’s stratosphere using the ALMA interferometer.
Methods.
We observed the spectral lines of CO at 345.796 GHz and HCN at 354.505 GHz with the high spatial (~0.6″ × 0.5″) and spectral resolutions enabled by ALMA, and measured the Doppler shift induced by the winds on the lines at the planet limb where the emission is the strongest. After subtracting the beam-convolved planet rotation, we derived the zonal wind speeds as a function of latitude.
Results.
We measured the zonal winds from ~20°S to the northern polar latitudes. Latitudes between 20°S and 45°S were obscured by the rings and were inaccessible southward of 45°S. The zonal wind profiles obtained on the eastern and western limbs are consistent within the error bars and probe from the 0.01 to the 20 mbar level. We most noticeably detect a broad super-rotating prograde jet that spreads from 20°S to 25°N with an average speed of 290 ± 30 m s
−1
. This jet is asymmetrical with respect to the equator, a possible seasonal effect. We tentatively detect the signature of the Saturn semi-annual oscillation (SSAO) at the equator, in the form of a ~−50 ± 30 m s
−1
peak at the equator which lies on top of the super-rotating jet. We also detect a broad retrograde wind (−45 ± 20 m s
−1
) of about 50 m s
−1
in the mid-northern latitudes. Finally, in the northern polar latitudes, we observe a possible auroral effect in the form of a ~200 m s
−1
jet localized on the average position of the northern main auroral oval and in couter-rotation, like the Jovian auroral jets.
Conclusions.
Repeated observations are now required to monitor the temporal evolution of the winds and quantify the variability of the SSAO jet, to test the seasonality of the asymmetry observed in the broad super-rotating jet, and to verify the presence of auroral jets in the southern polar region of Saturn.
The column‐average dry air mole fractions of atmospheric carbon dioxide and methane and are inferred from observations of backscattered sunlight conducted by the Greenhouse gases Observing SATellite ...(GOSAT). Comparing the first year of GOSAT retrievals over land with colocated ground‐based observations of the Total Carbon Column Observing Network (TCCON), we find an average difference (bias) of −0.05% and −0.30% for and with a station‐to‐station variability (standard deviation of the bias) of 0.37% and 0.26% among the 6 considered TCCON sites. The root‐mean square deviation of the bias‐corrected satellite retrievals from colocated TCCON observations amounts to 2.8 ppm for and 0.015 ppm for Without any data averaging, the GOSAT records reproduce general source/sink patterns such as the seasonal cycle of suggesting the use of the satellite retrievals for constraining surface fluxes.
Key Points
Improved quality of XCO2 and XCH4 satellite retrievals due to refined methods
Source/sink patterns are dentifiable in the data record without averaging
Constrained surface flux modeling is the logical next step
Column‐averaged dry air mole fractions of carbon dioxide (XCO2) measured by the Greenhouse Gases Observing Satellite (GOSAT) reveal significant interannual variation (IAV) of CO2uptake during the ...Northern Hemisphere summer between 2009 and 2010. The XCO2drawdown in 2010 is shallower than in 2009 by 2.4 ppm and 3.0 ppm over North America and Eurasia, respectively. Reduced carbon uptake in the summer of 2010 is most likely due to the heat wave in Eurasia driving biospheric fluxes and fire emissions. A joint inversion of GOSAT and surface data estimates an integrated biospheric and fire emission anomaly in April–September of 0.89 ±0.20 PgC over Eurasia. In contrast, inversions of surface measurements alone fail to replicate the observed XCO2IAV and underestimate emission IAV over Eurasia. This shows the value of GOSAT XCO2in constraining the response of land‐atmosphere exchange of CO2 to climate events.
Key Points
A shallower XCO2 drawdown is observed by GOSAT in summer 2010 compared to 2009Joint inversion of GOSAT and flask data relate it to emission IAV over EurasiaFlask-only inversions fail to capture emission IAV over Eurasia
The stratosphere of Saturn contains a photochemical haze that appears thicker at the poles and may originate from chemistry driven by the aurora. Models suggest that the formation of hydrocarbon haze ...is initiated at high altitudes by the production of benzene, which is followed by the formation of heavier ring polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. Until now there have been no observations of hydrocarbons or photochemical haze in the production region to constrain these models. We report the first vertical profiles of benzene and constraints on haze opacity in the upper atmosphere of Saturn retrieved from Cassini Ultraviolet Imaging Spectrograph stellar occultations. We detect benzene at several different latitudes and find that the observed abundances of benzene can be produced by solar‐driven ion chemistry that is enhanced at high latitudes in the northern hemisphere during spring. We also detect evidence for condensation and haze at high southern latitudes in the polar night.
Key Points
We present the first detections of benzene and hydrocarbon haze in their production region in Saturn's upper atmosphere
The observed benzene abundances can be explained by solar‐driven ion chemistry that is enhanced at high latitudes in the north
In June 2015, Cassini high-resolution images of Saturn's limb southwards of the planet's hexagonal wave revealed a system of at least six stacked haze layers above the upper cloud deck. Here, we ...characterize those haze layers and discuss their nature. Vertical thickness of layers ranged from 7 to 18 km, and they extended in altitude ∼130 km, from pressure level 0.5 bar to 0.01 bar. Above them, a thin but extended aerosol layer reached altitude ∼340 km (0.4 mbar). Radiative transfer modeling of spectral reflectivity shows that haze properties are consistent with particles of diameter 0.07-1.4 μm and number density 100-500 cm
. The nature of the hazes is compatible with their formation by condensation of hydrocarbon ices, including acetylene and benzene at higher altitudes. Their vertical distribution could be due to upward propagating gravity waves generated by dynamical forcing by the hexagon and its associated eastward jet.
•A seasonal radiative–convective model of Saturn’s atmosphere is built and evaluated.•Sensitivity to composition, aerosols, internal heat flux and ring shadow’s is assessed.•Strong cooling is ...expected under the ring’s shadow, but is not observed by Cassini.•Model-data mismatches are reviewed and reveal departures from radiative equilibrium.•The radiative cooling of the warm beacon formed after the 2010 storm is discussed.
We have developed and optimized a seasonal, radiative–convective model of Saturn’s upper troposphere and stratosphere. It is used to investigate Saturn’s radiatively-forced thermal structure between 3 and 10−6bar, and is intended to be included in a Saturn global climate model (GCM), currently under development. The main elements of the radiative transfer model are detailed as well as the sensitivity to spectroscopic parameters, hydrocarbon abundances, aerosol properties, oblateness, and ring shadowing effects. The vertical temperature structure and meridional seasonal contrasts obtained by the model are then compared to Cassini/CIRS observations. Several significant model-observation mismatches reveal that Saturn’s atmosphere departs from radiative equilibrium. For instance, we find that the modeled temperature profile is close to isothermal above the 2-mbar level, while the temperature retrieved from ground-based or Cassini/CIRS data continues to increase with altitude. Also, no local temperature minimum associated to the ring shadowing is observed in the data, while the model predicts stratospheric temperatures 10K to 20K cooler than in the absence of rings at winter tropical latitudes. These anomalies are strong evidence that processes other that radiative heating and cooling control Saturn’s stratospheric thermal structure. Finally, the model is used to study the warm stratospheric anomaly triggered after the 2010 Great White Spot. Comparison with recent Cassini/CIRS observations suggests that the rapid cooling phase of this warm “beacon” in May–June 2011 can be explained by radiative processes alone. Observations on a longer timeline are needed to better characterize and understand its long-term evolution.
Context.
Since the 1950s, quasi-periodic oscillations have been studied in the terrestrial equatorial stratosphere. Other planets of the Solar System present (or are expected to present) such ...oscillations; for example the Jupiter equatorial oscillation and the Saturn semi-annual oscillation. In Jupiter’s stratosphere, the equatorial oscillation of its relative temperature structure about the equator is characterized by a quasi-period of 4.4 yr.
Aims.
The stratospheric wind field in Jupiter’s equatorial zone has never been directly observed. In this paper, we aim to map the absolute wind speeds in Jupiter’s equatorial stratosphere in order to quantify vertical and horizontal wind and temperature shear.
Methods.
Assuming geostrophic equilibrium, we apply the thermal wind balance using almost simultaneous stratospheric temperature measurements between 0.1 and 30 mbar performed with Gemini/TEXES and direct zonal wind measurements derived at 1 mbar from ALMA observations, all carried out between March 14 and 22, 2017. We are thus able to self-consistently calculate the zonal wind field in Jupiter’s stratosphere where the JEO occurs.
Results.
We obtain a stratospheric map of the zonal wind speeds as a function of latitude and pressure about Jupiter’s equator for the first time. The winds are vertically layered with successive eastward and westward jets. We find a 200 m s
−1
westward jet at 4 mbar at the equator, with a typical longitudinal variability on the order of ~50 m s
−1
. By extending our wind calculations to the upper troposphere, we find a wind structure that is qualitatively close to the wind observed using cloud-tracking techniques.
Conclusions.
Almost simultaneous temperature and wind measurements, both in the stratosphere, are a powerful tool for future investigations of the JEO (and other planetary equatorial oscillations) and its temporal evolution.
Context. Saturn’s polar upper atmosphere exhibits significant auroral activity; however, its impact on stratospheric chemistry (i.e. the production of benzene and heavier hydrocarbons) and thermal ...structure remains poorly documented. Aims. We aim to bring new constraints on the benzene distribution in Saturn’s stratosphere, to characterize polar aerosols (their vertical distribution, composition, thermal infrared optical properties), and to quantify the aerosols’ radiative impact on the thermal structure. Methods. Infrared spectra acquired by the Composite Infrared Spectrometer (CIRS) on board Cassini in limb viewing geometry are analysed to derive benzene column abundances and aerosol opacity profiles over the 3 to 0.1 mbar pressure range. The spectral dependency of the haze opacity is assessed in the ranges 680–900 and 1360–1440 cm-1. Then, a radiative climate model is used to compute equilibrium temperature profiles, with and without haze, given the haze properties derived from CIRS measurements. Results. On Saturn’s auroral region (80°S), benzene is found to be slightly enhanced compared to its equatorial and mid-latitude values. This contrasts with the Moses & Greathouse (2005, J. Geophys. Res., 110, 9007) photochemical model, which predicts a benzene abundance 50 times lower at 80°S than at the equator. This advocates for the inclusion of ion-related reactions in Saturn’s chemical models. The polar stratosphere is also enriched in aerosols, with spectral signatures consistent with vibration modes assigned to aromatic and aliphatic hydrocarbons, and presenting similarities with the signatures observed in Titan’s stratosphere. The aerosol mass loading at 80°S is estimated to be 1−4 × 10-5 g cm-2, an order of magnitude less than on Jupiter, which is consistent with the order of magnitude weaker auroral power at Saturn. We estimate that this polar haze warms the middle stratosphere by 6 K in summer and cools the upper stratosphere by 5 K in winter. Hence, aerosols linked with auroral activity can partly account for the warm polar hood observed in Saturn’s summer stratosphere.
Context. The origin of water in the stratospheres of giant planets has been an outstanding question ever since its first detection by the Infrared Space Observatory some 20 years ago. Water can ...originate from interplanetary dust particles, icy rings and satellites, and large comet impacts. Analyses of Herschel Space Observatory observations have proven that the bulk of Jupiter’s stratospheric water was delivered by the Shoemaker-Levy 9 impacts in 1994. In 2006, the Cassini mission detected water plumes at the South Pole of Enceladus, which made the moon a serious candidate for Saturn’s stratospheric water. Further evidence was found in 2011 when Herschel demonstrated the presence of a water torus at the orbital distance of Enceladus that was fed by the moon’s plumes. Finally, water falling from the rings onto Saturn’s uppermost atmospheric layers at low latitudes was detected during the final orbits of Cassini’s end-of-mission plunge into the atmosphere. Aims. In this paper, we use Herschel mapping observations of water in Saturn’s stratosphere to identify its source. Methods. We tested several empirical models against the Herschel-HIFI and -PACS observations, which were collected on December 30, 2010, and January 2, 2011, respectively. Results. We demonstrate that Saturn’s stratospheric water is not uniformly mixed as a function of latitude, but peaks at the equator and decreases poleward with a Gaussian distribution. We obtain our best fit with an equatorial mole fraction 1.1 ppb and a half width at half maximum of 25°, when accounting for a temperature increase in the two warm stratospheric vortices produced by Saturn’s Great Storm of 2010–2011. Conclusions. This work demonstrates that Enceladus is the main source of Saturn’s stratospheric water.
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