Mast cells (MCs) influence intercellular communication during inflammation by secreting cytoplasmic granules that contain diverse mediators. Here, we have demonstrated that MCs decode different ...activation stimuli into spatially and temporally distinct patterns of granule secretion. Certain signals, including substance P, the complement anaphylatoxins C3a and C5a, and endothelin 1, induced human MCs rapidly to secrete small and relatively spherical granule structures, a pattern consistent with the secretion of individual granules. Conversely, activating MCs with anti-IgE increased the time partition between signaling and secretion, which was associated with a period of sustained elevation of intracellular calcium and formation of larger and more heterogeneously shaped granule structures that underwent prolonged exteriorization. Pharmacological inhibition of IKK-β during IgE-dependent stimulation strongly reduced the time partition between signaling and secretion, inhibited SNAP23/STX4 complex formation, and switched the degranulation pattern into one that resembled degranulation induced by substance P. IgE-dependent and substance P-dependent activation in vivo also induced different patterns of mouse MC degranulation that were associated with distinct local and systemic pathophysiological responses. These findings show that cytoplasmic granule secretion from MCs that occurs in response to different activating stimuli can exhibit distinct dynamics and features that are associated with distinct patterns of MC-dependent inflammation.
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Introduction
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The ‘unit granule’ and evidence of granule–granule fusion
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Evidence for two models of secretory granule formation, unit addition and random fusion
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Formation of unit granules: ...progranule fusion, immature granule maturation and membrane conservation
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Progranule fusion and immature granule maturation
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Membrane conservation
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Functional implications
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Conclusions and future directions
Morphometric evidence derived from studies of mast cells, pancreatic acinar cells and other cell types supports a model in which the post‐Golgi processes that generate mature secretory granules can be resolved into three steps: (1) fusion of small, Golgi‐derived progranules to produce immature secretory granules which have a highly constrained volume; (2) transformation of such immature granules into mature secretory granules, a process often associated with a reduction in the maturing granule’s volume, as well as changes in the appearance of its content and (3) fusion of secretory granules of the smallest size, termed ‘unit granules’, forming granules whose volumes are multiples of the unit granule’s volume. Mutations which perturb this process can cause significant pathology. For example, Chediak–Higashi syndrome / lysosomal trafficking regulator (CHS)/(Lyst) mutations result in giant secretory granules in a number of cell types in human beings with the Chediak–Higashi syndrome and in ‘beige’ (Lystbg/Lystbg) mice. Analysis of the secretory granules of mast cells and pancreatic acinar cells in Lyst‐deficient beige mice suggests that beige mouse secretory granules retain the ability to fuse randomly with other secretory granules no matter what the size of the fusion partners. By contrast, in normal mice, the pattern of granule–granule fusion occurs exclusively by the addition of unit granules, either to each other or to larger granules. The normal pattern of fusion is termed unit addition and the fusion evident in cells with CHS/Lyst mutations is called random addition. The proposed model of secretory granule formation has several implications. For example, in neurosecretory cells, the secretion of small amounts of cargo in granules constrained to a very narrow size increases the precision of the information conveyed by secretion. By contrast, in pancreatic acinar cells and mast cells, large granules composed of multiple unit granules permit the cells to store large amounts of material without requiring the amount of membrane necessary to package the same amount of cargo into small granules. In addition, the formation of mature secretory granules that are multimers of unit granules provides a mechanism for mixing in large granules the contents of unit granules which differ in their content of cargo.
Secretion of inflammatory mediators prestored in mast cells secretory granules (SGs) enhances immune responses such as in allergy and host defense. However, the mechanisms underlying the biogenesis ...of the SGs remain largely unresolved. By combining high-resolution live cell imaging and quantitative morphometric analyses, we show that the small GTPase Rab5 controls the SG size and cargo composition by a VAMP8-dependent fusion mechanism. Knockdown of the endogenous Rab5, or expression of constitutively negative mutants, significantly reduces the size of SGs and increases their number. Conversely, expression of constitutively active Rab5 mutants induces few, but giant, SGs. Both the small and giant SGs maintain their exocytosis competence. Finally, we show that Rab5-mediated fusion between Golgi-derived SGs and early endosomes precedes the maturation of the SGs, as reflected by the recruitment of Rab27B, and allows the incorporation of cargo, such as CD63, that traffics through endosomes. Collectively, our results assign Rab5 a key role in mediating mast cell SG fusion during biogenesis, thereby controlling the amount and composition of the SGs content and maintaining the communication between new and pre-existing SGs.
Mole rat bone marrow cells and peritoneal eosinophils are used to study granule morphological maturation by quantitative microscopy. The bulk eosinophil granule content is pre-stored in unique ...granular structures known as crystalloid or secondary granules. Mole rat eosinophil granules exhibit the basic structure of an electron-dense crystalloid core surrounded by a lighter, homogeneous matrix. Morphometric analysis demonstrated that bone marrow-derived eosinophil sphere-like granules display a periodic, multimodal granule volume distribution. In contrast, peritoneal eosinophils display cigar-shaped granules, whose crystalloid cores are more variable in size and shape as compared to bone marrow eosinophil granules. Using a morphometric approach, we deduced that the basic granule volume quantum is similar in both cases, suggesting that the sphere-like young eosinophil granules turn into dense ellipsoidal ones by intragranular processes in which both volume and membrane surface are conserved. Crystalloid granule mediators are known to be widely associated with allergic inflammatory events, which may damage the host tissue following secretion to the extracellular environment. Based on mathematical modeling, we suggest that this deviation from sphere-like to ellipsoidal shape reflects an adaptive response of the mole rat to its unique solitary life.
Compound exocytosis is considered the most massive mode of exocytosis, during which the membranes of secretory granules (SGs) fuse with each other to form a channel through which the entire contents ...of their granules is released. The underlying mechanisms of compound exocytosis remain largely unresolved. Here we show that the small GTPase Rab5, a known regulator of endocytosis, is pivotal for compound exocytosis in mast cells. Silencing of Rab5 shifts receptor-triggered secretion from a compound to a full exocytosis mode, in which SGs individually fuse with the plasma membrane. Moreover, we show that Rab5 is essential for FcεRI-triggered association of the SNARE protein SNAP23 with the SGs. Direct evidence is provided for SNAP23 involvement in homotypic SG fusion that occurs in the activated cells. Finally, we show that this fusion event is prevented by inhibition of the IKKβ2 kinase, however, neither a phosphorylation-deficient nor a phosphomimetic mutant of SNAP23 can mediate homotypic SG fusion in triggered cells. Taken together our findings identify Rab5 as a heretofore-unrecognized regulator of compound exocytosis that is essential for SNAP23-mediated granule-granule fusion. Our results also implicate phosphorylation cycles in controlling SNAP23 SNARE function in homotypic SG fusion.
The delivery of newly-formed secretory content to the granule inventory occurs through direct fusion of recently formed granules and mature granules. The introduction of knockout mice allowed us to ...investigate the characteristics of the delivery process and to determine the core protein machinery required for granule growth. The SNARE machinery mediates membrane fusion and is essential for the granule lifecycle. In the current work, we use VAMP8 knockout mice to show that the SNARE machinery plays a critical role in the process of granule homotypic fusion. Consistent with this, the mutated mouse pancreatic acinar secretory granules are significantly smaller compared to the control group, demonstrating few granule profiles that might be the result of homotypic fusion.
•The SNARE machinery dictates granule life cycle and nearly-LIFO inventory management.•Basal secretion has an important homeostatic function.•Evoked pulsatile burst of few granules may provide ...reliable cell–environment communication.•Massive degranulation permits adaptive response to immuno-pathologic states.
The classical model of mast cell secretory granule formation suggests that newly synthesized secretory mediators, transported from the rough endoplasmic reticulum to the Golgi complex, undergo post-transitional modification and are packaged for secretion by condensation within membrane-bound granules of unit size. These unit granules may fuse with other granules to form larger granules that reside in the cytoplasm until secreted. A novel stochastic model for mast cell granule growth and elimination (G&E) as well as inventory management is presented. Resorting to a statistical mechanics approach in which SNAP (Soluble NSF Attachment Protein) REceptor (SNARE) components are viewed as interacting particles, the G&E model provides a simple ‘nano-machine’ of SNARE self-aggregation that can perform granule growth and secretion. Granule stock is maintained as a buffer to meet uncertainty in demand by the extracellular environment and to serve as source of supply during the lead time to produce granules of adaptive content. Experimental work, mathematical calculations, statistical modeling and a rationale for the emergence of nearly last-in, first out inventory management, are discussed.
Ataxia-telangiectasia (A-T) is a human genetic disorder caused by mutational inactivation of the ATM gene. A-T patients display a pleiotropic phenotype, in which a major neurological feature is ...progressive ataxia due to degeneration of cerebellar Purkinje and granule neurons. Disruption of the mouseAtm locus creates a murine model of A-T that exhibits most of the clinical and cellular features of the human disease, but the neurological phenotype is barely expressed. We present evidence for the accumulation of DNA strand breaks in the brains of Atm(−/−), supporting the notion that ATM plays a major role in maintaining genomic stability. We also show a perturbation of the steady state levels of pyridine nucleotides. There is a significant decrease in both the reduced and the oxidized forms of NAD and in the total levels of NADPT and NADP+ in the brains of Atm(−/−) mice. The changes in NADT, NADH, NAD+, NADPT, and NADP+ were progressive and observed primarily in the cerebellum of 4-month-old Atm(−/−) mice. Higher rates of mitochondrial respiration were also recorded in 4-month-old Atm(−/−) cerebella. Taken together, our findings support the hypothesis that absence of functional ATM results in continuous stress, which may be an important cause of the degeneration of cerebellar neurons in A-T.
The inventory of secretory granules along the plasma membrane can be viewed as maintained in two restricted compartments. The release-ready pool represents docked granules available for an initial ...stage of fast, immediate secretion, followed by a second stage of granule set-aside secretion pool, with significantly slower rate. Transmission electron microscopy ultra-structural investigations correlated with electrophysiological techniques and mathematical modelling have allowed the categorization of these secretory vesicle compartments, in which vesicles can be in various states of secretory competence. Using the above-mentioned approaches, the kinetics of single vesicle exocytosis can be worked out. The ultra-fast kinetics, explored in this study, represents the immediately available release-ready pool, in which granules bound to the plasma membrane are exocytosed upon Ca2+ influx at the SNARE rosette at the base of porosomes. Formalizing Dodge and Rahamimoff findings on the effect of calcium concentration and incorporating the effect of SNARE transient rosette size, we postulate that secretion rate (rate), the number (X) of intracellular calcium ions available for fusion, calcium capacity (0 ≤ M ≤ 5) and the fusion nano-machine size (as measured by the SNARE rosette size K) satisfy the parsimonious M–K relation rate ≈ C × Ca2+min(X,M)e−K/2.
Granule secretory content is released in either basal or calcium-activated complete exocytosis mode. A vital element in these processes is the establishment of a fusion pore between the granule ...membrane and the plasma membrane, initiated by the formation of a circular rosette docking arrangement of SNARE protein complexes. The controversially disputed number of SNARE complexes needed for granule priming leading to the formation of the fusion pore, is granule-size dependent and varies between secretion modes. Resorting to a statistical mechanics approach that views SNARE complexes and Ca
2+
ions as interacting particles, we have developed a relationship that links secretion rate to SNARE rosette size, Ca
2+
concentration and Ca
2+
ion cooperativity. Data are presented and discussed which suggest this SNARE-dependent generalization of existing narrow-range biophysical models that correlate secretion rate with Ca
2+
concentration and maximal Ca
2+
ion cooperativity. Evidence from dozens of examples in the literature advocate for this relation, which holds through the entire biological range. The coalescence of so many areas of diverse research methodologies has greatly augmented our understanding of so many different sequences of granule life cycle. Accordingly, these new tools may become valuable in a variety of electrophysiological experiments.
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