Vertical profiles of black carbon (BC) and other light-absorbing impurities were measured in seasonal snow and permanent snowfields in the Chilean Andes during Austral winters 2015 and 2016, at 22 ...sites between latitudes 18°S and 41°S. The samples were analyzed for spectrally-resolved visible light absorption. For surface snow, the average mass mixing ratio of BC was 15 ng/g in northern Chile (18-33°S), 28 ng/g near Santiago (a major city near latitude 33°S, where urban pollution plays a significant role), and 13 ng/g in southern Chile (33-41°S). The regional average vertically-integrated loading of BC was 207 µg/m
in the north, 780 µg/m
near Santiago, and 2500 µg/m
in the south, where the snow season was longer and the snow was deeper. For samples collected at locations where there had been no new snowfall for a week or more, the BC concentration in surface snow was high (~10-100 ng/g) and the sub-surface snow was comparatively clean, indicating the dominance of dry deposition of BC. Mean albedo reductions due to light-absorbing impurities were 0.0150, 0.0160, and 0.0077 for snow grain radii of 100 µm for northern Chile, the region near Santiago, and southern Chile; respective mean radiative forcings for the winter months were 2.8, 1.4, and 0.6 W/m
. In northern Chile, our measurements indicate that light-absorption by impurities in snow was dominated by dust rather than BC.
Background: Several countries have documented the relationship between long-term exposure to air pollutants and epidemiological indicators of the COVID-19 pandemic, such as incidence and mortality. ...This study aims to explore the association between air pollutants, such as PM2.5 and PM10, and the incidence and mortality rates of COVID-19 during 2020. Methods: The incidence and mortality rates were estimated using the COVID-19 cases and deaths from the Chilean Ministry of Science, and the population size was obtained from the Chilean Institute of Statistics. A chemistry transport model was used to estimate the annual mean surface concentration of PM2.5 and PM10 in a period before the current pandemic. Negative binomial regressions were used to associate the epidemiological information with pollutant concentrations while considering demographic and social confounders. Results: For each microgram per cubic meter, the incidence rate increased by 1.3% regarding PM2.5 and 0.9% regarding PM10. There was no statistically significant relationship between the COVID-19 mortality rate and PM2.5 or PM10. Conclusions: The adjusted regression models showed that the COVID-19 incidence rate was significantly associated with chronic exposure to PM2.5 and PM10, even after adjusting for other variables.
Abstract
The chemical composition of snow provides insights on atmospheric transport of anthropogenic contaminants at different spatial scales. In this study, we assess how human activities influence ...the concentration of elements in the Andean mountain snow along a latitudinal transect throughout Chile. The concentration of seven elements (Al, Cu, Fe, Li, Mg, Mn and Zn) was associated to gaseous and particulate contaminants emitted at different spatial scales. Our results indicate carbon monoxide (CO) averaged at 20 km and nitrogen oxide (NOx) at 40 km as the main indicators of the chemical elements analyzed. CO was found to be a significant predictor of most element concentrations while concentrations of Cu, Mn, Mg and Zn were positively associated to emissions of NOx. Emission of 2.5 μm and 10 μm particulate matter averaged at different spatial scales was positively associated to concentration of Li. Finally, the concentration of Zn was positively associated to volatile organic compounds (VOC) averaged at 40 km around sampling sites. The association between air contaminants and chemical composition of snow suggests that regions with intensive anthropogenic pollution face reduced quality of freshwater originated from glacier and snow melting.
This study presents the first high-resolution national inventory
of anthropogenic emissions for Chile (Inventario Nacional de Emisiones Antropogénicas, INEMA). Emissions for the vehicular, ...industrial, energy, mining and residential sectors are estimated for the
period 2015–2017 and spatially distributed onto a high-resolution grid (approximately 1 km×1 km). The pollutants included are CO2, NOx, SO2,
CO, VOCs (volatile organic compounds), NH3 and particulate matter (PM10 and PM2.5) for
all sectors. CH4 and black carbon are included for transport and
residential sources, while arsenic, benzene, mercury, lead, toluene, and
polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and furan (PCDD/F) are estimated for
energy, mining and industrial sources. New activity data and emissions
factors are compiled to estimate emissions, which are subsequently spatially
distributed using census data and Chile's road network
information. The estimated annual average total national emissions of PM10 and
PM2.5 during the study period are 191 and 173kt a−1 (kilotons per year),
respectively. The residential sector is responsible for over 90 % of these
emissions. This sector also emits 81 % and 87 % of total CO and VOC,
respectively. On the other hand, the energy and industry sectors contribute
significantly to NH3, SO2 and CO2 emissions, while the transport
sector dominates NOx and CO2 emissions, and the mining sector dominates
SO2 emissions. In general, emissions of anthropogenic air pollutants
and CO2 in northern Chile are dominated by mining activities as well as
thermoelectric power plants, while in central Chile the dominant sources are
transport and residential emissions. The latter also mostly dominates
emissions in southern Chile, which has a much colder climate. Preliminary
analysis revealed the dominant role of the emission factors in the final
emission uncertainty. Nevertheless, uncertainty in activity data also
contributes as suggested by the difference in CO2 emissions between
INEMA and EDGAR (Emission Database for Global Atmospheric Research). A comparison between these two inventories also revealed
considerable differences for all pollutants in terms of magnitude and
sectoral contribution, especially for the residential sector. EDGAR presents
larger emissions for most of the pollutants except for CH4 and
PM2.5. The differences between both inventories can partly be
explained by the use of different emission factors, in particular for the
residential sector, where emission factors incorporate information on
firewood and local operation conditions. Although both inventories use
similar emission factors, differences in CO2 emissions between both
inventories indicate biases in the quantification of the activity. This inventory (available at https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.4784286, Alamos et al., 2021) will
support the design of policies that seek to mitigate climate change and
improve air quality by providing policymakers, stakeholders and scientists
with qualified scientific spatially explicit emission information.
In Latin America, there is scarce comparative research on variables associated with the perception of climate change. This hinders the ability of governments to take mitigation and adaptation ...measures in the face of the phenomenon, as well as the ability of the population to cope with its effects. In order to fill that void, this research studies the relationship between climate change perception, vulnerability, and readiness in 17 countries of the region. To that end, perception indicators included in the
Latinobarómetro
2017 survey are analyzed, contrasted with vulnerability and readiness indexes provided by the University of Notre Dame’s Global Adaptation Index. The analytical strategy includes the statistical description of the variables associated with the perception of climate change in countries of the region, clustering together those countries that display similar behavioral patterns in relation to their vulnerability and readiness indicators, as well as crosstabs with climate change indicators. The key findings indicate that it is possible to identify 3 patterns of behavior regarding the countries’ vulnerability and readiness, which account for high, intermediate, and low levels in those variables. These patterns indicate cross-cutting trends concerning variables such as the level of education and affinity for the market economy, as well as particularities differentiating each country from the rest. The main conclusion is the existence of a negative association between the affinity people express for the market economy and their acknowledgment of climate change as a relevant problem.
This description paper presents a detailed and consistent estimate and
analysis of exhaust pollutant emissions generated by Chile's
road transport activity for the period 1990–2020. The complete ...database for
the period 1990–2020 is available at the following DOI:
https://doi.org/10.17632/z69m8xm843.2 (Osses et al., 2021). Emissions are
provided at a high spatial resolution (0.01∘ × 0.01∘) over continental Chile from 18.5 to 53.2∘ S,
including local pollutants (CO; volatile organic compounds, VOCs; NOx; PM2.5), black carbon (BC) and
greenhouse gases (CO2, CH4). The methodology considers 70 vehicle
types, based on 10 vehicle categories, subdivided into 2 fuel types and
7 emission standards. Vehicle activity was calculated based on official
databases of vehicle records and vehicle flow counts. Fuel consumption was
calculated based on vehicle activity and contrasted with fuel sales to
calibrate the initial dataset. Emission factors come mainly from the Computer programme to calculate emissions from road
transport version 5 (COPERT 5),
adapted to local conditions in the 15 political regions of Chile, based on
emission standards and fuel quality. While vehicle fleet grew 5-fold
between 1990 and 2020, CO2 emissions have followed this trend at a
lower rate, and emissions of air local pollutants have decreased due to
stricter abatement technologies, better fuel quality and enforcement of
emission standards. In other words, there has been decoupling between fleet
growth and emissions' rate of change. Results were contrasted with global
datasets (EDGAR, CAMS, CEDS), showing similarities in CO2 estimations
and striking differences in PM, BC and CO; in the case of NOx and CH4
there is coincidence only until 2008. In all cases of divergent results,
global datasets estimate higher emissions.
Worldwide, urbanization constitutes a major and growing driver of global change and a distinctive feature of the Anthropocene. Thus, urban development paths present opportunities for technological ...and societal transformations towards energy efficiency and decarbonization, with benefits for both greenhouse gas (GHG) and air pollution mitigation. This requires a better understanding of the intertwined dynamics of urban energy and land use, emissions, demographics, governance, and societal and biophysical processes. In this study, we address several characteristics of urbanization in Santiago (33.5°S, 70.5°W, 500 m a.s.l.), the capital city of Chile. Specifically, we focus on the multiple links between mobility and air quality, describe the evolution of these two aspects over the past 30 years, and review the role scientific knowledge has played in policy-making. We show evidence of how technological measures (e.g., fuel quality, three-way catalytic converters, diesel particle filters) have been successful in decreasing coarse mode aerosol (PM10) concentrations in Santiago despite increasing urbanization (e.g., population, motorization, urban sprawl). However, we also show that such measures will likely be insufficient if behavioral changes do not achieve an increase in the use of public transportation. Our investigation seeks to inform urban development in the Anthropocene, and our results may be useful for other developing countries, particularly in Latin America and the Caribbean where more than 80% of the population is urban.
Residential firewood burning is the main source of PM2.5 emissions in southern and central Chile. In Chile, approximately 4000 premature deaths are observed each year due to air pollution. Mitigation ...policies aim to reduce dwellings' energy demand and foster cleaner but more expensive energy sources. Pre-existing energy poverty conditions are often overlooked in these policies, even though they can negatively affect the adoption of these measures. This article uses southern and central Chile as a case study to assess quantitatively different policy scenarios of PM2.5 emissions between 2017 and 2050, considering energy poverty-related effects. Results show that PM2.5 emissions will grow 16% over time under a business as usual scenario. If thermal improvement and stove/heater replacements are implemented, PM2.5 reductions depend on the scale of the policy: a 5%–6% reduction of total southern and central Chile PM2.5 emissions if only cities with Atmospheric Decontamination Plans are included; a 54%–56% reduction of PM2.5 emissions if these policies include other growing cities. Our study shows that the energy poverty effect potentially reduces the effectiveness of these measures in 25%. Consequently, if no anticipatory measures are taken, Chile's energy transition goals could be hindered and the effectiveness of mitigation policies to improve air quality significantly reduced.
•PM2.5 residential emissions in southern and central Chile are expected to increase 16% between 2017 and 2050.•Growing cities could become polluted if not included in current air quality policies.•Energy poverty conditions significantly reduce the expected effectiveness of air quality policies.
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