Venus is known to have been volcanically resurfaced in the last third of solar system history and to have undergone a significant decrease in volcanic activity a few hundred million years ago. ...However, fundamental questions remain: Is Venus still volcanically active today, and if so, where and in what geological and geodynamic environment? Here we show evidence from the Venus Express Venus Monitoring Camera for transient bright spots that are consistent with the extrusion of lava flows that locally cause significantly elevated surface temperatures. The very strong spatial correlation of the transient bright spots with the extremely young Ganiki Chasma, their similarity to locations of rift‐associated volcanism on Earth, provide strong evidence for their volcanic origin and suggests that Venus is currently geodynamically active.
Key Points
VMC was able to sound Venus surface through the atmosphere transparency window
Transient bright phenomena were observed in the Ganiki Chasma zone
They are consistent with hypothesis of lava lakes on the surface
The Atmospheric Chemistry Suite (ACS) package is an element of the Russian contribution to the ESA-Roscosmos ExoMars 2016 Trace Gas Orbiter (TGO) mission. ACS consists of three separate infrared ...spectrometers, sharing common mechanical, electrical, and thermal interfaces. This ensemble of spectrometers has been designed and developed in response to the Trace Gas Orbiter mission objectives that specifically address the requirement of high sensitivity instruments to enable the unambiguous detection of trace gases of potential geophysical or biological interest. For this reason, ACS embarks a set of instruments achieving simultaneously very high accuracy (ppt level), very high resolving power (>10,000) and large spectral coverage (0.7 to 17 μm—the visible to thermal infrared range). The near-infrared (NIR) channel is a versatile spectrometer covering the 0.7–1.6 μm spectral range with a resolving power of ∼20,000. NIR employs the combination of an echelle grating with an AOTF (Acousto-Optical Tunable Filter) as diffraction order selector. This channel will be mainly operated in solar occultation and nadir, and can also perform limb observations. The scientific goals of NIR are the measurements of water vapor, aerosols, and dayside or night side airglows. The mid-infrared (MIR) channel is a cross-dispersion echelle instrument dedicated to solar occultation measurements in the 2.2–4.4 μm range. MIR achieves a resolving power of >50,000. It has been designed to accomplish the most sensitive measurements ever of the trace gases present in the Martian atmosphere. The thermal-infrared channel (TIRVIM) is a 2-inch double pendulum Fourier-transform spectrometer encompassing the spectral range of 1.7–17 μm with apodized resolution varying from 0.2 to 1.3 cm
−1
. TIRVIM is primarily dedicated to profiling temperature from the surface up to ∼60 km and to monitor aerosol abundance in nadir. TIRVIM also has a limb and solar occultation capability. The technical concept of the instrument, its accommodation on the spacecraft, the optical designs as well as some of the calibrations, and the expected performances for its three channels are described.
We present and discuss here the average fields of the Venus atmosphere derived from the nighttime observations in the 1960–2350 cm−1 spectral range by the VIRTIS‐M instrument on board the Venus ...Express satellite. These fields include: (a) the air temperatures in the 1–100 mbar pressure range (~85–65 km above the surface), (b) the altitude of the clouds top, and (c) the average CO mixing ratio. A new retrieval code based on the Bayesian formalism has been developed and validated on simulated observations, to statistically assess the retrieval capabilities of the scheme once applied to the VIRTIS data. The same code has then been used to process the entire VIRTIS‐M data set. Resulting individual retrievals have been binned on the basis of local time and latitude, to create average fields. Air temperature fields confirm the general trends previously reported in Grassi et al. (2010), using a simplified retrieval scheme and a more limited data set. At the lowest altitudes probed by VIRTIS (~65 km), air temperatures are strongly asymmetric around midnight, with a pronounced minima at 3LT, 70°S. Moving to higher levels, the air temperatures first become more uniform in local time (~75 km), then display a colder region on the evening side at the upper boundary of VIRTIS sensitivity range (~80 km). As already shown by Ignatiev et al. (2008) for the dayside, the cloud effective altitude increases monotonically from the south pole to the equator. However, the variations observed in night data are consistent with an overall variation of just 1 km, much smaller than the 4 km reported for the dayside. The cloud altitudes appear slightly higher on the evening side. Both observations are consistent with a less vigorous meridional circulation on the nightside of the planet. Carbon monoxide is not strongly constrained by the VIRTIS‐M data. However, average fields present a clear maximum of 80 ppm around 60°S, well above the retrieval uncertainty. Once the intrinsic low sensitivity of VIRTIS data in the region of cold collar is kept in mind, this datum is consistent with a CO enrichment toward the poles driven by meridional circulation.
Key Points
Venus air temperatures above clouds are driven by atmosphere dynamics
Cloud altitude increases toward the equator also on the nightside
CO at 65‐70 km increases from 40S to 60S
•The largest data set of cloud tracked winds – about 0.5 million vectors – from the VMC/Venus Express imaging.•Characterization of the mean circulation at the Venus cloud tops.•Orbit-to-orbit changes ...and diurnal variations of the mean flow.•Long-term trend: acceleration of the mean flow from 2006 to 2012.•Periodicities in the cloud top wind field.
Six years of continuous monitoring of Venus by European Space Agency’s Venus Express orbiter provides an opportunity to study dynamics of the atmosphere our neighbor planet. Venus Monitoring Camera (VMC) on-board the orbiter has acquired the longest and the most complete so far set of ultra violet images of Venus. These images enable a study the cloud level circulation by tracking motion of the cloud features. The highly elliptical polar orbit of Venus Express provides optimal conditions for observations of the Southern hemisphere at varying spatial resolution. Out of the 2300 orbits of Venus Express over which the images used in the study cover about 10 Venus years. Out of these, we tracked cloud features in images obtained in 127 orbits by a manual cloud tracking technique and by a digital correlation method in 576 orbits. Total number of wind vectors derived in this work is 45,600 for the manual tracking and 391,600 for the digital method. This allowed us to determine the mean circulation, its long-term and diurnal trends, orbit-to-orbit variations and periodicities. We also present the first results of tracking features in the VMC near-IR images. In low latitudes the mean zonal wind at cloud tops (67±2km following: Rossow, W.B., Del Genio, A.T., Eichler, T. 1990. J. Atmos. Sci. 47, 2053–2084) is about 90m/s with a maximum of about 100m/s at 40–50°S. Poleward of 50°S the average zonal wind speed decreases with latitude. The corresponding atmospheric rotation period at cloud tops has a maximum of about 5days at equator, decreases to approximately 3days in middle latitudes and stays almost constant poleward from 50°S. The mean poleward meridional wind slowly increases from zero value at the equator to about 10m/s at 50°S and then decreases to zero at the pole. The error of an individual measurement is 7.5–30m/s. Wind speeds of 70–80m/s were derived from near-IR images at low latitudes. The VMC observations indicate a long term trend for the zonal wind speed at low latitudes to increase from 85m/s in the beginning of the mission to 110m/s by the middle of 2012. VMC UV observations also showed significant short term variations of the mean flow. The velocity difference between consecutive orbits in the region of mid-latitude jet could reach 30m/s that likely indicates vacillation of the mean flow between jet-like regime and quasi-solid body rotation at mid-latitudes. Fourier analysis revealed periodicities in the zonal circulation at low latitudes. Within the equatorial region, up to 35°S, the zonal wind show an oscillation with a period of 4.1–5days (4.83days on average) that is close to the super-rotation period at the equator. The wave amplitude is 4–17m/s and decreases with latitude, a feature of the Kelvin wave. The VMC observations showed a clear diurnal signature. A minimum in the zonal speed was found close to the noon (11–14h) and maxima in the morning (8–9h) and in the evening (16–17h). The meridional component peaks in the early afternoon (13–15h) at around 50°S latitude. The minimum of the meridional component is located at low latitudes in the morning (8–11h). The horizontal divergence of the mean cloud motions associated with the diurnal pattern suggests upwelling motions in the morning at low latitudes and downwelling flow in the afternoon in the cold collar region.
Simultaneous observations of Venus by Visible and Infrared Thermal Imaging Spectrometer and Venus Monitoring Camera onboard the Venus Express spacecraft are used to map the cloud top altitude and to ...relate it to the ultraviolet (UV) markings. The cloud top altitude is retrieved from the depth of CO2 absorption band at 1.6 μm. In low and middle latitudes the cloud top is located at 74 ± 1 km. It decreases poleward of ±50° and reaches 63–69 km in the polar regions. This depression coincides with the eye of the planetary vortex. At the same latitude and hour angle, cloud top can experience fast variations of about 1 km in tens of hours, while larger long‐term variations of several kilometers have been observed only at high latitudes. UV markings correlate with the cloud altimetry, however, the difference between adjacent UV dark and bright regions does not exceed several hundred meters. Surprisingly, CO2 absorption bands are often weaker in the dark UV features, indicating that these clouds may be a few hundred meters higher or have a larger scale height than neighboring clouds. Ultraviolet dark spiral arms, which are often seen at about −70°, correspond to higher altitudes or to the regions with strong latitudinal gradient of the cloud top altitude. Cloud altimetry in the polar region reveals the structure that correlates with the thermal emission maps but is invisible in UV images. This implies that the UV optically thick polar hood is transparent in the near IR.
This work aims to give a summary of the water vapor at the cloud top of Venus atmosphere using the complete set of observations made using high spectral resolution channel (-H) of Visible and ...Infrared Thermal Imaging Spectrometer (VIRTIS), on board the ESA Venus Express orbiter, to measure the cloud top altitude and the water vapor abundance near this level. An initial analysis of these measurements by Cottini et al. (2012) was limited to data in 140 orbits in the period 2007–2008. These observations were limited to the Northern hemisphere due to observational geometry in this early part of the mission. In the present paper, the analysis is extended to a larger dataset covering the years 2006–2011, significantly improving the latitudinal coverage. Altitude of the cloud tops, corresponding to unit optical depth at a wavelength of 2.5µm, is equal to 69±1km at low latitudes, and decreases toward the pole to 62–64km. The water vapor abundance is equal to 3±1ppm in low latitudes and it increases reaching a maximum of 5±2ppm at 70–80° of latitude in both hemispheres, with a sharp drop in the polar regions. This can be explained by the specific dynamics of the atmosphere of Venus affecting the distribution of water vapor such as the transfer of water vapor in the Hadley cell and the dynamic in the polar vortex. The average height of the cloud tops and the H2O near this level are symmetric with respect to the equator. As a function of local solar time, the water vapor shows no particular dependence, and the cloud tops exhibit just a weak maximum around noon. Over 5 years of observations the average values of the cloud top altitude and the water vapor were quite stable in low and middle latitudes, while in high latitudes both quantities in 2009–2011 years are systematically higher than in 2006–2008. Short period variations increasing with latitude are observed, from approximately less than ±1km for cloud tops and ±1ppm for water vapor in low latitudes to, respectively, ±2km and ±2ppm in high latitudes. As a rule there is no correlation between variations of the cloud top altitude, the water vapor content, and the UV brightness. However, numerous examples can be found when UV dark features, with a characteristic size of a few degrees of latitude (several hundred kilometers), coincide with regions of higher cloud tops.
•Water vapor abundance at the cloud tops of Venus with high spectral resolution.•Complete VIRTIS-H / Venus Express day-side dataset analyzed.•Better coverage in latitude shows cloud top heights and H2O symmetric around equator.•No considerable dependence on local time is observed.•Long term stability of water vapor at low latitudes with some variations over 60°.
► Water vapor abundance at the cloud tops of Venus with high spatial resolution. ► At low latitudes mean water vapor abundance is stable and equal to 3
±
1
ppm. ► Scatter and maximum at high ...latitudes may be explained by dynamic processes. ► Water amount contained in a gas phase always dominates that in cloud droplets. ► UV markings do not correlate with the cloud tops and water vapor.
Observations of the dayside of Venus performed by the high spectral resolution channel (–H) of the Visible and Infrared Thermal Imaging Spectrometer (VIRTIS) on board the ESA Venus Express mission have been used to measure the altitude of the cloud tops and the water vapor abundance around this level with a spatial resolution ranging from 100 to 10
km. CO
2 and H
2O bands between 2.48 and 2.60
μm are analyzed to determine the cloud top altitude and water vapor abundance near this level. At low latitudes (±40°) mean water vapor abundance is equal to 3
±
1
ppm and the corresponding cloud top altitude at 2.5
μm is equal to 69.5
±
2
km. Poleward from middle latitudes the cloud top altitude gradually decreases down to 64
km, while the average H
2O abundance reaches its maximum of 5
ppm at 80° of latitude with a large scatter from 1 to 15
ppm. The calculated mass percentage of the sulfuric acid solution in cloud droplets of mode 2 (∼1
μm) particles is in the range 75–83%, being in even more narrow interval of 80–83% in low latitudes. No systematic correlation of the dark UV markings with the cloud top altitude or water vapor has been observed.
During more than 6 years of the Venus Express (VEx) mission, the Venus Monitoring Camera (VMC) took around 300000 images in four channels covering almost all the latitudes, including night and day ...sides. Here we give an overview of the VMC data and summarize results of retrievals of the optical properties of the Venus upper clouds. The in-flight characterization and calibration of VMC are also described. We model the phase dependence of brightness (phase range α=0–140°) retrieved from the dayside images obtained in NIR1 VMC channel at various latitudes (30°N–60°S) and local solar times (6–18h). The radiative transfer calculations were performed for the plane-parallel atmospheric layers, and the Mie theory was used for the calculations of the single scattering phase functions of the cloud aerosols. The size distribution of cloud particles and their refractive index were estimated for each of the regions observed. These retrievals show some temporal and spatial variations. In general, the particles at low latitudes are somewhat larger than in the regions closer to the southern pole (Reff=1.2–1.4μmversus0.9–1.05μm). At latitudes 40°S–60°S the refractive index is usually smaller than in the other regions (mr=1.44–1.45versus 1.45–1.47 with sporadic spikes of up to 1.49). The retrievals robustly show presence of particles with a radius of about Reff=0.9μm in the clouds and/or the haze above them in these mid-latitudes. Small submicron (Reff=0.23μm) particles are detected mostly in the morning.
•VMC inflight characteristics and data obtained during 11 Venus years are overviewed.•The VMC images allow the phase profiles of the upper clouds to be built.•Properties of cloud particles were traced in space and time from near-IR data.•Particles of about 0.9mkm in radius are found in the clouds and/or the upper haze.•Small submicron particles are detected mostly in the morning at mid-latitudes.
The upper cloud layer of Venus is a key factor affecting radiative energy balance of the mesosphere. Observations of the temperature and the cloud top structure by Venus Express revealed their strong ...variability with latitude. We used the 1-D radiative transfer model to study the dependence of the radiative forcing on the cloud top structure. The cloud top altitude effectively controls outgoing thermal fluxes. Sharp cloud top boundary can produce a pronounced peak of both solar heating and thermal cooling that suggests a radiative origin of temperature inversions in the cold collar. Strong diurnal variation of net forcing at low latitudes can be responsible for the origin of convective cells observed in UV images. Latitudinal contrasts in the radiative forcing in the mesosphere can drive meridional Hadley-type circulation with meridional winds of few m/s and vertical motions with speed of few cm/s.
•We studied radiative forcing variations due to clouds of the Venus mesosphere.•The atmospheric model is derived from the Venus Express observations.•The cloud top structure affects cooling and heating rates significantly.•Strong diurnal variation of net forcing at the cloud top level is expected.•Meridional net forcing unbalance requires a Hadley-like circulation in the mesosphere.
We present the seasonal and geographical variations of the martian water vapor monitored from the Planetary Fourier Spectrometer Long Wavelength Channel aboard the Mars Express spacecraft. Our ...dataset covers one martian year (end of Mars Year 26, Mars Year 27), but the seasonal coverage is far from complete. The seasonal and latitudinal behavior of the water vapor is globally consistent with previous datasets, Viking Orbiter Mars Atmospheric Water Detectors (MAWD) and Mars Global Surveyor Thermal Emission Spectrometer (MGS/TES), and with simultaneous results obtained from other Mars Express instruments, OMEGA and SPICAM. However, our absolute water columns are lower and higher by a factor of 1.5 than the values obtained by TES and SPICAM, respectively. In particular, we retrieve a Northern midsummer maximum of 60 pr-μm, lower than the 100-pr-μm observed by TES. The geographical distribution of water exhibits two local maxima at low latitudes, located over Tharsis and Arabia. Global Climate Model (GCM) simulations suggest that these local enhancements are controlled by atmospheric dynamics. During Northern spring, we observe a bulge of water vapor over the seasonal polar cap edge, consistent with the northward transport of water from the retreating seasonal cap to the permanent polar cap. In terms of vertical distribution, we find that the water volume mixing ratio over the large volcanos remains constant with the surface altitude within a factor of two. However, on the whole dataset we find that the water column, normalized to a fixed pressure, is anti-correlated with the surface pressure, indicating a vertical distribution intermediate between control by atmospheric saturation and confinement to a surface layer. This anti-correlation is not reproduced by GCM simulations of the water cycle, which do not include exchange between atmospheric and subsurface water. This situation suggests a possible role for regolith–atmosphere exchange in the martian water cycle.
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