It is well known that gibbons emit a pattern of vocalizations, which is specific for species and sex. A previous study showed, however, that immature southern yellow-cheeked gibbon (Nomascus ...gabriellae) males produce only female-like great calls from 2.3 to 5.3 years of age in co-singing interactions with their mothers. To date, nothing is known about how the vocal repertoire of a male changes from the female-like call (great call) to the male call (staccato notes and multi-modulation phrase) during vocal ontogeny. The goal of this study was to describe the transition from the female-like great call to the male call and the ontogeny of the male call. We predicted that the transition from the female-like great call to the male-specific call and the development of the male call is a normal part of the aging proces. If this is the case, the following phenomena will occur: (a) female vocalization should no longer be produced with the mature form of the multi-modulation phrase and (b) all stages of the male vocalization should occur gradually as the young male ages. Young males regularly emit both female-like great calls and male-specific calls between the ages of 5.6 to 7.1 years. Once the young males reached 7.1 years of age, they emitted male calls exclusively, and they continued to do so until the end of the observation period (at 8.11 years of age). It was confirmed that the young males emitted only female-like great calls during periods when they produced non-mature forms of a multi-modulation phrase (Fm
-none or one frequency modulation in second notes). Furhermore, the decrease in the number of female-like great calls was attributed to the development of the mature form of the multi-modulation phrase (Fm
-two or more frequency modulation in second notes), which developed with age. We also confirmed that the multi-modulation phrase developed gradually, while the development of the staccato notes occurred in leaps. A multi-modulation phrase developed as the initial part of the male-specific call. It was evolved from a simpler to a more complex form as the maximum frequency and age of the young males increased. Staccato notes subsequently developed in certain young males. Possible explanations for such vocal ontogeny in young males are discussed in this work.
The effects of social separation, including vocalization, have been studied for a very long time in non-human primates under laboratory conditions. As part of the long-term research on the vocal ...behaviour of
Nomascus
gibbons in zoos, this study provides the first record of calls of the southern yellow-cheeked gibbon (
Nomascus gabriellae
) in response to involuntary separation. Our study revealed that calls were also emitted by an infant (aged 1 year 8 months), and that the acoustic structure of the infant’s calls was similar to that of older individuals’ calls. Separation-induced calls seem to have a shorter developmental convergence than vocalizations with a stable pattern (which are specific for species and sex). The acoustic structure of the calls reported here comprised simple syllables, and differed from the sex- and species-specific vocal patterns of this species. Our findings demonstrate a novel paradigm in this genus, and provide evidence of the ability of gibbons to express distress when socially separated.
This study examined whether piglet distress vocalizations vary with age, body weight and health status, according to the predictions of the honest signalling of need evolutionary model. Vocalizations ...were recorded during manual squeezing (a simulation of being crushed by mother sow) and during isolation on Days 1 and 7 after birth in piglets from 15 litters. We predicted that during squeezing, younger, lighter and sick piglets would call more intensely because they are in higher risk of dying during crushing and therefore they benefit more from the sow's reaction to intensive vocalization. For isolation, we predicted that lighter and younger piglets would call more because they are more vulnerable to adverse effects of the separation. Calls were analyzed in their time and frequency domain. The rate of calling, call duration, proportion of high-pitched calls and eight acoustic parameters characterizing frequency distribution and tonality were used as indicators of acoustic signalling intensity. Piglets that experienced "squeezing" on Day 1 produced more intense acoustic distress signalling than on Day 7. Lighter piglets called more during squeezing than heavier piglets. Health status did not significantly affect any of the indicators of intensity of vocalization during squeezing. In isolation, none of the parameters of vocalization intensity were affected either by the age or by the weight of the piglets. In summary, the model of honest signalling of need was confirmed in the squeezed situation, but not in the isolation situation.
Temporary crating (TC) provides lactating sows with the opportunity to move more freely after crate opening a few days after parturition. The aim of this paper was to evaluate whether TC gives ...overall welfare improvement when compared to permanent crating or free farrowing. This review shows that when pens with TC allow the sows to turn during the majority of time in the farrowing unit, it is the pen design and period of confinement in a crate within it that influence the extent to which different functional and motivated behaviors can be fulfilled. This review also indicates that there are at least short-term benefits to sows when confinement is reduced, as shown by reported increases in motivated behaviors such as exploration and interactions with piglets when not permanently crated. It remains unclear whether there are any longer-term beneficial effects (until or beyond weaning) due to the paucity of studies. Furthermore, it is uncertain whether the observed short-term benefits translate to other welfare indicators. Research findings indicate no reduction in the frequency of stereotypies or body lesions and do not provide a clear answer regarding sow stress response when released from confinement. Compared to free farrowing, TC appears beneficial for reducing piglet mortality. The impact of the time of onset of TC on the farrowing process and piglet mortality have been inconsistent. While confinement before farrowing prevents nest building behavior, consequences of this for sow physiology have been ambiguous. Confining the sow briefly after farrowing may be the best compromise, allowing the sow to perform motivated nest-building behavior, but the risks of crushing during the unconfined farrowing period may increase. Subsequent crate reopening seems to increase piglet mortality but only if done earlier than 3-5 days after farrowing. The review also provides methodological considerations, a proposal for consistent and accurate terminology when describing systems and highlights gaps of knowledge. In conclusion, TC is a step forward to better pig welfare compared to the farrowing crate, as it allows some freedom of movement for sows without impairing piglet welfare. However, more comprehensive research is needed to draw sound conclusions as to whether TC is a viable transition from permanent crating to free farrowing.
All gibbons (Primates: Hylobatidae) are well known for emitting loud vocalizations specific for species and sex. The songs of paired and unpaired male southern yellow-cheeked gibbons (
Nomascus ...gabriellae
) are characterized by the presence of staccato notes and multi-modulation phrases with two or more extremely rapid frequency modulations in the second note of each phrase. In addition, paired males also produce a coda vocalization, which is similar to the multi-modulation phrase of male calls but lacks the staccato notes and always occurs directly following the female great call as part of a pair-specific duet. The aim of this study was first to assess whether the songs of paired and unpaired males can be acoustically distinguished from one another and second, whether the coda vocalization differs from the multi-modulation phrase of the male call in paired males. To assess these issues, we analyzed 616 songs obtained from a long-term study of vocal development in 14 captive adult males (>7 years old), half of which were unpaired and significantly younger than paired subjects. For each song, we quantified nine acoustic features, for which we applied a suite of linear mixed effects models with social status as a fixed variable and age as a regression coefficient. This allowed us to compare (1) the structure of male calls (staccato notes and multi-modulation phrase) between paired and unpaired subjects, (2) the muti-modulation phrase of unpaired subjects to the coda vocalization of paired subjects, and (3) the multi-modulation phrase of paired males to the coda vocalization. We found that the male call of younger-unpaired subjects had a longer duration, broader frequency range, higher maximum frequency, and fewer staccato notes than their counterparts in paired subjects. The coda vocalization of older-paired males exhibited a larger number of frequency modulations than the multi-modulation phrase of all males. While the male call of younger-unpaired males differs from both the male call and the coda vocalization of older-paired males, further studies are necessary to disentangle the effects of age and pairing status.
•An adequate social environment can improve the welfare of farm animals.•We investigated the extent to which domestic pigs show social preferences.•We measured close-proximity and affiliative contact ...rates in multiple behavioural contexts.•Domestic pigs can develop social preferences, influenced by sex and dominance status.•Although relatively weak social preferences among pigs are present across behavioural contexts.
Social preferences in pigs have received little attention despite the welfare implication of providing an adequate social environment for farm animals. We investigated the extent to which domestic pigs show affiliative preferences in three behavioural contexts—rest, exploration, social nosing—and whether these preferences were influenced by sex, relatedness and social dominance. We recorded the frequency at which pigs were associated in close spatial proximity during rest (≤30 cm) and exploration (≤1 m), and engaged in social nosing interactions (snout- snout and snout-body contacts) from age 23–29 weeks. The group consisted of 24 pigs from three mixed-sex litters of the same age, housed in an indoor pen and having free access to a large pasture area. To test for dyadic social preferences, we calculated associations in close proximity and social nosing interaction rates, classified them by strength and tested their significance with permutation methods. We then used the Multiple Regression Quadratic Assignment Procedure to test whether individual traits (sex, litter, dominance) and other social interactions (agonistic interactions, active lying down) explained the preferred partners. Preferences were overall relatively weak but found across all behavioural contexts—of all observed pairs, 44 % were preferred pairs when resting, 20 % when exploring, and 30 % when social nosing (snout-body contact). Snout-body contacts were weakly and negatively correlated with sex and dominance, whereas close proximity associations during rest and social nosing interactions were positively correlated with active lying down behaviour. Our results indicate that domestic pigs can develop preferred social relationships, and that such social preferences are weakly driven by individual attributes (sex and dominance) but influenced by the behavioural context. By shedding light on underexplored aspects of the social structure of pigs, our study strengthens the importance of accounting for the multiple drivers of social relationships to provide an adequate environment that improves management and welfare of pigs.
Farrowing pens with temporary crating have been developed as a compromise between conventional farrowing crates and pens to better accommodate the welfare of both sow and piglets during lactation. ...However, not much is known about the behavioral and physiological consequences of early removal of confinement on the sow and piglets during lactation. The aim of this study was to assess the effects on sow and piglet performance of temporary crating until 3-d postpartum at 2 times points, immediately after confinement removal and 25 d into lactation. Sows were crated from 5-d prepartum either to weaning (permanently crated-PC group; N =14) or to D3 (83.0 ± 1.3 h) postpartum (Temporarily crated - TC group N = 13). Sow postural changes, activity, cortisol and IgA concentrations, and piglet body weight gain and behavior were assessed on D4 and on D25 postpartum, whereas piglet mortality was assessed throughout lactation. Data were analyzed using PROC GLM and PROC GENMOD of SAS. On D4 postfarrowing, TC sows were more active (10.9% vs. 7.1%; SEM: 0.8; P = 0.002), rolled more frequently (21.3% vs. 14.4%; SEM: 1.6; P = 0.008), and had lower IgA concentrations (139.7 vs. 75.2 µg/mL; SEM: 20.3; P = 0.040) than PC sows. No effects of housing were found (P > 0.05) on standing-to-lying movement or cortisol concentrations. No differences for any variables were found (P > 0.05) on D25. Mortality, body weights, and activity levels at the udder or in the pen of pigs born to PC sows did not differ (P > 0.05) from those of piglets born to TC sows on D4 nor on D25. This study indicates that removal of confinement on the 4th-d postpartum may have had small short-term positive effects on sow behavior and stress levels (as measured by IgA), and that it did not impair piglets' behavior and performance during lactation. Therefore, this work suggests that temporary crating limited to the first 3-d postpartum might be a feasible alternative to improve welfare under intensive production conditions.
Abstract
Farrowing pens with temporary crating have been developed as a compromise between conventional farrowing crates and pens to better accommodate the welfare of both sow and piglets during ...lactation. However, not much is known about the behavioral and physiological consequences of early removal of confinement on the sow and piglets during lactation. The aim of this study was to assess the effects on sow and piglet performance of temporary crating until 3-d postpartum at 2 times points, immediately after confinement removal and 25 d into lactation. Sows were crated from 5-d prepartum either to weaning (permanently crated—PC group; N =14) or to D3 (83.0 ± 1.3 h) postpartum (Temporarily crated - TC group N = 13). Sow postural changes, activity, cortisol and IgA concentrations, and piglet body weight gain and behavior were assessed on D4 and on D25 postpartum, whereas piglet mortality was assessed throughout lactation. Data were analyzed using PROC GLM and PROC GENMOD of SAS. On D4 postfarrowing, TC sows were more active (10.9% vs. 7.1%; SEM: 0.8; P = 0.002), rolled more frequently (21.3% vs. 14.4%; SEM: 1.6; P = 0.008), and had lower IgA concentrations (139.7 vs. 75.2 µg/mL; SEM: 20.3; P = 0.040) than PC sows. No effects of housing were found (P > 0.05) on standing-to-lying movement or cortisol concentrations. No differences for any variables were found (P > 0.05) on D25. Mortality, body weights, and activity levels at the udder or in the pen of pigs born to PC sows did not differ (P > 0.05) from those of piglets born to TC sows on D4 nor on D25. This study indicates that removal of confinement on the 4th-d postpartum may have had small short-term positive effects on sow behavior and stress levels (as measured by IgA), and that it did not impair piglets’ behavior and performance during lactation. Therefore, this work suggests that temporary crating limited to the first 3-d postpartum might be a feasible alternative to improve welfare under intensive production conditions.
Farrowing pens with temporary crating have been developed as a compromise between conventional farrowing crates and pens to better accommodate the welfare of both sow and piglets during lactation. ...However, not much is known about the behavioral and physiological consequences of early removal of confinement on the sow and piglets during lactation. The aim of this study was to assess the effects on sow and piglet performance of temporary crating until 3-d postpartum at 2 times points, immediately after confinement removal and 25 d into lactation. Sows were crated from 5-d prepartum either to weaning (permanently crated-PC group; N =14) or to D3 (83.0 ± 1.3 h) postpartum (Temporarily crated - TC group N = 13). Sow postural changes, activity, cortisol and IgA concentrations, and piglet body weight gain and behavior were assessed on D4 and on D25 postpartum, whereas piglet mortality was assessed throughout lactation. Data were analyzed using PROC GLM and PROC GENMOD of SAS. On D4 postfarrowing, TC sows were more active (10.9% vs. 7.1%; SEM: 0.8; P = 0.002), rolled more frequently (21.3% vs. 14.4%; SEM: 1.6; P = 0.008), and had lower IgA concentrations (139.7 vs. 75.2 ...g/mL; SEM: 20.3; P = 0.040) than PC sows. No effects of housing were found (P > 0.05) on standing-to-lying movement or cortisol concentrations. No differences for any variables were found (P > 0.05) on D25. Mortality, body weights, and activity levels at the udder or in the pen of pigs born to PC sows did not differ (P > 0.05) from those of piglets born to TC sows on D4 nor on D25. This study indicates that removal of confinement on the 4th-d postpartum may have had small short-term positive effects on sow behavior and stress levels (as measured by IgA), and that it did not impair piglets' behavior and performance during lactation. Therefore, this work suggests that temporary crating limited to the first 3-d postpartum might be a feasible alternative to improve welfare under intensive production conditions.
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