The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID‐19) pandemic has had enormous effects on anatomy education. During the pandemic, students have had no access to cadavers, which has been the principal way to learn ...anatomy since the 17th century. As it is difficult to predict future access to cadavers for students or in‐person classes, anatomy educators are encouraged to revisit all possible teaching methods in order to develop innovations. Here, we review anatomy education methods to apply to current and future education.
Research within the anatomical sciences often relies on human cadaveric tissues. Without the good will of these donors who allow us to use their bodies to push forward our anatomical knowledge, most ...human anatomical research would come to a standstill. However, many research papers omit an acknowledgement to the donor cadavers or, as no current standardized versions exist, use language that is extremely varied. To remedy this problem, 20 editors‐in‐chiefs from 17 anatomical journals joined together to put together official recommendations that can be used by authors when acknowledging the donor cadavers used in their studies. The goal of these recommendations is to standardize the writing approach by which donors are acknowledged in anatomical studies that use human cadaveric tissues. Such sections in anatomical papers will not only rightfully thank those who made the donation but might also encourage, motivate, and inspire future individuals to make such gifts for the betterment of the anatomical sciences and patient care.
Having established and classified the laws of nature, scientists gradually achieved the skill of judging what is most typical and what is rare or deviates from the commonly-observed pattern. ...Normality in anatomy can be considered relative (linked to a specific set of assumptions) and is inferred from numerous repeated observations. In anatomy textbooks, the term “norm” is associated with such concepts as general pattern, rule, or canon. Deviations from the most common (assumed to be typical) morphology are described as variants or types of organs or anatomical structures. The term “anomaly” is also used in the anatomical and medical literature to describe variations; however, this designation can also be applied to pathological conditions. Nevertheless, the “norm” in anatomy is not as precise a concept as one would wish, and can be considered an approximation. In fact, anatomical variability is the rule, though most variations are within the normal range. Thus, the idea of a medical and anatomical norm is analogous the sorites paradox because the boundaries between what is considered normal and what is anomalous are blurred. Nevertheless, the anatomical norm should only be regarded as an idealized scientific model; anatomical variations should be kept in mind in clinical practice.
The aim of this review is to reflect on the question of gross anatomical normality and variability. Particular attention has been paid to what is considered normal in gross anatomy and the premises for recognizing a given structure as normal. The earliest historical sources referring to anatomical variations are described in the paper. The general significance of anatomical variations is also discussed.
•This review reflects on the question of gross anatomical normality and variability.•Brief considerations of “norm” in natural sciences are presented.•The earliest historical sources referring to anatomical variations are described.•The general significance of anatomical variations is also discussed.
Objectives The aim of this study was to elucidate the positional relationship between the courses of the angular veins and the facial muscles, and the possible roles of the latter as alternative ...venous valves. Methods The angular veins of 44 specimens of embalmed Korean adult cadavers were examined. Facial muscles were studied to establish their relationships with the angular vein, including the orbicularis oculi (OOc), depressor supercilii (DS), zygomaticus minor (Zmi), zygomaticus major (Zmj), and levator labii superioris (LLS). Results In the upper face of all specimens, the angular vein passed through the DS and descended to the medial palpebral ligament. In the midface, it passed between the origin of the levator labii superioris alaeque nasi (LLSAN) and the inferior OOc fibers. The vein coursed along the deep surface of the inferior margin of the OOc in all specimens. At the level of the nasal ala, the course of the angular vein was classified into three types: in type I it passed between the LLS and Zmi (38.6%), in type II it passed between the superficial and deep fibers of the Zmi (47.7%), and in type III it passed between the Zmi and Zmj (13.6%). In the lower face of all specimens, the angular or facial vein passed through the anterior lobe of the buccal fat pad. Conclusion This study found that the angular vein coursed along the sites where facial muscle contractions are assumed to efficiently compress the veins, likely controlling venous flow as valves. The observations made and analysis performed in this study will improve the understanding of the physiological function of the facial muscles as alternative venous valves.
Introduction
In this review, cases of herpes zoster (HZ) infection following receipt of COVID‐19 vaccines will be analyzed. We also present two cases of oral HZ following the COVID‐19 vaccine and ...discuss this clinical anatomy.
Materials and Methods
A database search using PubMed was conducted in August 2021 and 20 articles were found to be eligible for review. Patient data and vaccine information were analyzed. In addition, two cases of oral HZ infection following the receipt of COVID‐19 vaccines are presented.
Results
A total of 399 cases were identified. The affected dermatomes mimicked the regular distribution of HZ. For the dermatomes of the face, the various reports used different ways to describe the areas involved; CNV, CNV1, CNV2, CNV3, lower jaw, forehead, and under the eyebrow (CNV, 2 cases; CNV1, 4 cases; CNV2, 3 cases; and CNV3, 3 cases). Some patients who had a history of varicella zoster virus vaccination had HZ following the COVID‐19 vaccination. Two patients with oral HZ following vaccination were found to have involvement of the greater palatine nerve.
Conclusions
Vaccine‐related HZ cases have been reported worldwide. Although many studies with a larger number of cases are ongoing, detailed information can be obtained from case reviews as reported herein.
The COVID‐19 pandemic has posed a challenge for many medical schools, as they have had to adjust their curricula into an online format. This was particularly problematic for anatomy courses as in ...person dissections have historically been preferred for providing students with a three‐dimensional learning environment. In this study, we aim to share our experience with conducting anatomy lectures for medical student using a virtual reality (VR) workspace. Additionally, we discuss the advantages of using VR and expand on how it may be used to improve students' understanding of anatomy in comparison to various other online lecture formats. To do this, we utilized a post‐lecture survey to gain feedback from the medical students that participated in a VR anatomy workspace. We found that many of our participants expressed that having access to their course material from anywhere and anytime via a virtual space, and being able to manipulate anatomical structures by moving and modifying them provided the student with a strong advantage. Although there are still limitations, we hope that our experience will assist other anatomy teachers with improving their lecture methods, especially during the pandemic.
The aim of the present study was to determine the contribution of the orbicularis oculi (OOc) to the zygomaticus major (Zmj) in connecting the orbital region to the corner of the mouth. The OOc and ...Zmj of 22 embalmed adult Korean cadavers were dissected in 44 hemifaces. The OOc fibers were traced to determine their contribution to the Zmj. Parts of the superficial bundle in the orbital region of the OOc extended directly or indirectly to the Zmj in 22.7% of the specimens. The anatomical contribution of the OOc to the Zmj was divided into three categories depending on whether the connection between them was direct or indirect: (1) superficial orbital OOc fibers extended directly to the Zmj in 6.8% of the specimens, (2) superficial orbital OOc fibers extended to the zygomaticus minor and their small portion joined to the upper fibers of the Zmj in 15.9% of the specimens, and (3) no connection was identified between the OOc and Zmj in 77.3% of the specimens. The results of this study provide further anatomical insight into the relationship between the OOc and zygomaticus muscle complex. This information could be helpful for elucidating the anatomy of smiling and treatment and surgery designs for balanced or ideal smiles.
The thalamus is a deep cerebral structure that is crucial for proper neurological functioning as it transmits signals from nearly all pathways in the body. Insult to the thalamus can, therefore, ...result in complex syndromes involving sensation, cognition, executive function, fine motor control, emotion, and arousal, to name a few. Specific territories in the thalamus that are supplied by deep cerebral arteries have been shown to correlate with clinical symptoms. The aim of this review is to enhance our understanding of the arterial anatomy of the thalamus and the complications that can arise from lesions to it by considering the functions of known thalamic nuclei supplied by each vascular territory.
In recent years, structures including the superficial musculoaponeurotic system and retaining ligaments that support the facial soft tissue have been clarified. However, these structures are very ...difficult to observe in their entirety by the standard gross anatomical procedure (ie, dissection from superficial to deep layers). Furthermore, accurate descriptions of these structures are rare in both anatomical and plastic surgery textbooks. The aim of this study was to clarify the facial fibrous structures in a gross anatomical view.
The authors' novel method used soft facial tissue and bone. The tissue was fixed in gelatin and sectioned at a thickness of 5 to 10 mm. Each section was placed on a wooden board; the bone was then pinned, and the skin was pulled outward with sutures to hyperextend the soft tissue. Subsequently, the loose connective tissue was torn and fat tissue was removed under a surgical microscope. After the removal of fat tissue, the fibrous facial structures (eg, the superficial musculoaponeurotic system and retaining ligaments) could be observed clearly.
The thickness of the sections allowed three-dimensional observation, such that a structure located deep within a section could be clearly observed. The expansion of soft tissue facilitated observation of the facial layer and fibrous structures, and the locations of nerves and vessels. Therefore, the facial layer structure was readily discerned.
This method is likely to be very useful in the field of plastic surgery because it enabled intuitive identification of facial layers and their characteristics.
The dissection method developed by the authors reveals the connected morphology of each tissue of the face, thus providing basic data for analyzing soft tissue changes due to aging and gravity. This will be useful for the development of anti-aging medicine.
PDF
