G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) mediate the majority of cellular responses to external stimuli. Upon activation by a ligand, the receptor binds to a partner heterotrimeric G protein and promotes ...exchange of GTP for GDP, leading to dissociation of the G protein into α and βγ subunits that mediate downstream signals. GPCRs can also activate distinct signaling pathways through arrestins. Active states of GPCRs form by small rearrangements of the ligand-binding, or orthosteric, site that are amplified into larger conformational changes. Molecular understanding of the allosteric coupling between ligand binding and G protein or arrestin interaction is emerging from structures of several GPCRs crystallized in inactive and active states, spectroscopic data, and computer simulations. The coupling is loose, rather than concerted, and agonist binding does not fully stabilize the receptor in an active conformation. Distinct intermediates whose populations are shifted by ligands of different efficacies underlie the complex pharmacology of GPCRs.
G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) relay numerous extracellular signals by triggering intracellular signaling through coupling with G proteins and arrestins. Recent breakthroughs in the structural ...determination of GPCRs and GPCR-transducer complexes represent important steps toward deciphering GPCR signal transduction at a molecular level. A full understanding of the molecular basis of GPCR-mediated signaling requires elucidation of the dynamics of receptors and their transducer complexes as well as their energy landscapes and conformational transition rates. Here, we summarize current insights into the structural plasticity of GPCR-G-protein and GPCR-arrestin complexes that underlies the regulation of the receptor's intracellular signaling profile.
G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) can modulate diverse signaling pathways, often in a ligand-specific manner. The full range of functionally relevant GPCR conformations is poorly understood. Here, ...we use NMR spectroscopy to characterize the conformational dynamics of the transmembrane core of the β2-adrenergic receptor (β2AR), a prototypical GPCR. We labeled β2AR with 13CH3ε-methionine and obtained HSQC spectra of unliganded receptor as well as receptor bound to an inverse agonist, an agonist, and a G-protein-mimetic nanobody. These studies provide evidence for conformational states not observed in crystal structures, as well as substantial conformational heterogeneity in agonist- and inverse-agonist-bound preparations. They also show that for β2AR, unlike rhodopsin, an agonist alone does not stabilize a fully active conformation, suggesting that the conformational link between the agonist-binding pocket and the G-protein-coupling surface is not rigid. The observed heterogeneity may be important for β2AR’s ability to engage multiple signaling and regulatory proteins.
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► NMR using 13CH3-ε-Met reveals dynamics of β2 adrenergic receptor (β2AR) ► NMR and computational approaches show unanticipated conformational states ► Conformational heterogeneity is observed in both unliganded and antagonist-bound β2AR ► Agonist alone does not fully stabilize the active conformation of the β2AR
NMR studies reveal that β2 adrenergic receptor experiences conformational heterogeneity until both agonist and a G protein mimetic bind, shifting the receptor into its active conformation.
G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) represent a large family of signaling proteins that includes many therapeutic targets; however, progress in identifying new small molecule drugs has been ...disappointing. The past 4 years have seen remarkable progress in the structural biology of GPCRs, raising the possibility of applying structure-based approaches to GPCR drug discovery efforts. Of the various structure-based approaches that have been applied to soluble protein targets, such as proteases and kinases, in silico docking is among the most ready applicable to GPCRs. Early studies suggest that GPCR binding pockets are well suited to docking, and docking screens have identified potent and novel compounds for these targets. This review will focus on the current state of in silico docking for GPCRs.
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► Last four years, several inactive-state GPCR structures have been solved. ► Active-state structures may be unstable without a native signaling partner. ► Nanobodies act as ...surrogates of GPCR signaling partners. ► Nanobody 80 has G protein-like properties and stabilizes an agonist activated state of the β
2AR.
Remarkable progress has been made in the field of G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) structural biology during the past four years. Several obstacles to generating diffraction quality crystals of GPCRs have been overcome by combining innovative methods ranging from protein engineering to lipid-based screens and microdiffraction technology. The initial GPCR structures represent energetically stable inactive-state conformations. However, GPCRs signal through different G protein isoforms or G protein-independent effectors upon ligand binding suggesting the existence of multiple ligand-specific active states. These active-state conformations are unstable in the absence of specific cytosolic signaling partners representing new challenges for structural biology. Camelid single chain antibody fragments (nanobodies) show promise for stabilizing active GPCR conformations and as chaperones for crystallogenesis.
G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) transduce signals from the extracellular environment to intracellular proteins. To gain structural insight into the regulation of receptor cytoplasmic ...conformations by extracellular ligands during signaling, we examine the structural dynamics of the cytoplasmic domain of the β2-adrenergic receptor (β2AR) using 19F-fluorine NMR and double electron-electron resonance spectroscopy. These studies show that unliganded and inverse-agonist-bound β2AR exists predominantly in two inactive conformations that exchange within hundreds of microseconds. Although agonists shift the equilibrium toward a conformation capable of engaging cytoplasmic G proteins, they do so incompletely, resulting in increased conformational heterogeneity and the coexistence of inactive, intermediate, and active states. Complete transition to the active conformation requires subsequent interaction with a G protein or an intracellular G protein mimetic. These studies demonstrate a loose allosteric coupling of the agonist-binding site and G-protein-coupling interface that may generally be responsible for the complex signaling behavior observed for many GPCRs.
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•Two inactive states predominate in unliganded and antagonist-bound β2AR•Agonists increase structural heterogeneity in β2AR cytoplasmic domains•The agonist-binding pocket and cytoplasmic surface have weak allosteric coupling•Complete receptor activation requires G protein or a mimetic nanobody
A combination of spectroscopic methods examining the dynamics and structure of the β2-adrenergic receptor reveals a loose allosteric coupling of the agonist-binding site and G-protein-coupling interface that shapes downstream signaling pathways.
G protein coupled receptors (GPCRs) exhibit a spectrum of functional behaviors in response to natural and synthetic ligands. Recent crystal structures provide insights into inactive states of several ...GPCRs. Efforts to obtain an agonist-bound active-state GPCR structure have proven difficult due to the inherent instability of this state in the absence of a G protein. We generated a camelid antibody fragment (nanobody) to the human β
2
adrenergic receptor (β
2
AR) that exhibits G protein-like behavior, and obtained an agonist-bound, active-state crystal structure of the receptor-nanobody complex. Comparison with the inactive β
2
AR structure reveals subtle changes in the binding pocket; however, these small changes are associated with an 11Å outward movement of the cytoplasmic end of transmembrane segment 6, and rearrangements of transmembrane segments 5 and 7 that are remarkably similar to those observed in opsin, an active form of rhodopsin. This structure provides insights into the process of agonist binding and activation.
Ligand-induced activation of G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) is a key mechanism permitting communication between cells and organs. Enormous progress has recently elucidated the structural and ...dynamic features of GPCR transmembrane signaling. Nanobodies, the recombinant antigen-binding fragments of camelid heavy-chain-only antibodies, have emerged as important research tools to lock GPCRs in particular conformational states. Active-state stabilizing nanobodies have elucidated several agonist-bound structures of hormone-activated GPCRs and have provided insight into the dynamic character of receptors. Nanobodies have also been used to stabilize transient GPCR transmembrane signaling complexes, yielding the first structural insights into GPCR signal transduction across the cellular membrane. Beyond their in vitro uses, nanobodies have served as conformational biosensors in living systems and have provided novel ways to modulate GPCR function. Here, we highlight several examples of how nanobodies have enabled the study of GPCR function and give insights into potential future uses of these important tools.
Glucagon-like peptide 1 (GLP-1) is a hormone with essential roles in regulating insulin secretion, carbohydrate metabolism and appetite. GLP-1 effects are mediated through binding to the GLP-1 ...receptor (GLP-1R), a class B G-protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) that signals primarily through the stimulatory G protein G
. Class B GPCRs are important therapeutic targets; however, our understanding of their mechanism of action is limited by the lack of structural information on activated and full-length receptors. Here we report the cryo-electron microscopy structure of the peptide-activated GLP-1R-G
complex at near atomic resolution. The peptide is clasped between the N-terminal domain and the transmembrane core of the receptor, and further stabilized by extracellular loops. Conformational changes in the transmembrane domain result in a sharp kink in the middle of transmembrane helix 6, which pivots its intracellular half outward to accommodate the α5-helix of the Ras-like domain of G
. These results provide a structural framework for understanding class B GPCR activation through hormone binding.
G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) are responsible for the majority of cellular responses to hormones and neurotransmitters as well as the senses of sight, olfaction and taste. The paradigm of GPCR ...signalling is the activation of a heterotrimeric GTP binding protein (G protein) by an agonist-occupied receptor. The β(2) adrenergic receptor (β(2)AR) activation of Gs, the stimulatory G protein for adenylyl cyclase, has long been a model system for GPCR signalling. Here we present the crystal structure of the active state ternary complex composed of agonist-occupied monomeric β(2)AR and nucleotide-free Gs heterotrimer. The principal interactions between the β(2)AR and Gs involve the amino- and carboxy-terminal α-helices of Gs, with conformational changes propagating to the nucleotide-binding pocket. The largest conformational changes in the β(2)AR include a 14 Å outward movement at the cytoplasmic end of transmembrane segment 6 (TM6) and an α-helical extension of the cytoplasmic end of TM5. The most surprising observation is a major displacement of the α-helical domain of Gαs relative to the Ras-like GTPase domain. This crystal structure represents the first high-resolution view of transmembrane signalling by a GPCR.
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