Abstract Key message A Soil Monitoring Law to improve soil health across all land uses has been proposed by the European Commission. As forests soils have different chemical and physical properties ...as well as biogeochemical dynamics compared to agricultural land, they also face different challenges in maintaining and restoring soil health. Examples are soil acidification, eutrophication by atmospheric deposition, responses to climate change, and loss of biodiversity. Therefore, we propose forest soil specific health descriptors and thresholds based on experience and knowledge from existing long-term monitoring programs.
Repeated soil surveys provide opportunities to quantify the effect of long-term environmental change. In recent decades, the topics of forest soil acidification as a consequence of acidic deposition, ...the enrichment of forest ecosystems with nitrogen, and the loss of carbon due to climate change have been discussed. We used two forest soil surveys that were 20 years apart, in order to establish the direction and magnitude of changes in soil carbon, nitrogen, and soil acidity. Soils have been initially sampled in the late 1980s. The plots were revisited twenty years later. Archived soil samples from the first survey were reanalyzed with the same protocol as the new samples. We found changes in the stocks of soil organic carbon, soil nitrogen, and soil pH. However, the changes were inconsistent. In general, as many sites have gained soil organic carbon, as sites have lost carbon. Most soils have been slightly enriched with nitrogen. The soil pH has not changed significantly. We conclude that changes in the evaluated soil chemical properties are mainly driven by forest management activities and ensuing forest stand dynamics, and atmospheric deposition. We have no convincing evidence that climate change effects have already changed the soil organic carbon stock, irrespective of bedrock type.
When forest soils are investigated, the identification of litter and soil layers is a key step. Mid-infrared spectroscopy seems to be promising for this due to its capability to provide fingerprint ...information. In this study, a large data set of mid-infrared spectra of different forest soils (L, FH and Ah horizons of coniferous, mixed and deciduous forests) was available together with general analyses data (among others organic carbon, total nitrogen and carbonate contents). This set was used for devising models for the identification of different soil layers and to follow the characteristics of different forest types in the different layers. Canonical discriminant functions were calculated using nine mid-infrared bands occurring in both organic layers and mineral soil layers. The discriminant analysis of the topsoil layers showed that aliphatic mid-infrared bands dominated the first function and yielded a clear separation of mineral and organic layers. Further, this analysis reflected the higher chemical diversity in the organic layers visible by a high scattering of the calculated data points. Two tests with two separate data sets showed a reliable and reproducible performance of the model. Separations of forest types were best possible in the organic layers, in which the deciduous forests were separated best from mixed and coniferous forests. Also for these discriminations, aliphatic bands were dominating. Advanced degradation of soil organic matter resulted in small distances of equidistant forest-type group-centers in the 5–10
cm layers of the mineral soils. Dominating molecular moieties in the discriminant functions in these layers were carbonates and aliphatic bands. The applied methodology suggests mid-infrared spectroscopy as an appropriate tool for soil layer identification, allowing for unequivocal discrimination between organic and mineral soil layers. Discriminations of forest types delivered information about dominating mid-infrared bands in the single layers and allowed conclusions about functional groups dominating these differences.
► Mid-infrared spectroscopy was able to separate organic layers and mineral soils. ► Forest types were better separated in the organic layers due to fresh litter. ► Organic layers: highest contributions to the models from aliphats, amides, alcohols. ► Mineral soil layers: highest contributions from carbonates and aliphats.
Information on chemical fertility status and on trace element concentrations for Singapore soils is sparse. In this study, concentration and distribution of nutrients and trace elements in forest ...soils of Singapore, and the effect of geology on the current conditions of soils, were evaluated. Litter and mineral soil samples (0–10 cm, 10–20 cm, 20–50 cm) were divided into three groups according to geology (sedimentary rocks, Neogene-Quaternary sediments and igneous rocks). Basic soil properties, exchangeable cations including cation exchange capacity (CEC), and pseudototal concentrations of 17 elements including nutrients and potentially toxic elements (PTE; As, Cd, Cu, Cr, Ni, Pb, Zn) were determined. Results showed that the soils of Singapore were acidic (pH 3.7–6.2) and characterised by a low CEC (maximum mean value: 100 mmolc kg−1) and low P concentrations (mean values of 0.28 g kg−1 or less) irrespective of geology. Pseudototal concentrations of PTE were also low, except for As. However, significantly (p < 0.05) higher concentrations of soil organic carbon, total P, base forming elements, exchangeable base cations and PTE (except As and Cd) were found in soils developed on sedimentary rocks and Neogene-Quaternary sediments compared to those developed on igneous rocks. Although total N and S concentrations did not differ significantly between the three geological groups, the differences in nutrient status were more pronounced than in trace element levels across geology. The properties of forest soils, which are mainly unaffected by anthropogenic activities, vary depending on the parent material, i.e. igneous or sedimentary rocks and Neogene-Quaternary sediments.
•A comprehensive data set for Singapore soils with reference to geology is presented.•Geology is particularly important for soil nutrient status.•Trace element concentrations in forest soils are generally low.•Arsenic concentrations are elevated in soils developed on igneous rocks.•These data can be used to assess soil pollution in Singapore.
Studies of soil greenhouse gas (GHG) fluxes (CO2, CH4 and N2O) from tropical soils are still scarce and the effects of urban green space management on soil GHG fluxes are poorly addressed. In order ...to establish reliable global GHG budgets, field measurements of soil GHG fluxes from different land uses and management practices in tropical regions are urgently needed. In this study, soil fluxes of CO2, CH4 and N2O were measured over a period of one year, from a forest and an urban parkland in Singapore. At the parkland site, two additional management practices were investigated, namely compost application to urban lawn and the replacement of lawn by legumes. The average CO2 efflux from the forest soil was 0.17 ± 0.01 g C m−2 h−1 and was 30% lower than that of the parkland soil. The forest soil was a CH4 sink (−36.03 ± 8.80 μg C m−2 h−1), while the parkland soil was a source of CH4 (43.79 ± 9.66 μg C m−2 h−1). Both soils were net emitters of N2O, with the forest soil releasing four times more N2O (23.23 ± 5.10 μg N m−2 h−1) than the parkland soil (6.47 ± 2.52 μg N m−2 h−1). During the entire observation period, compost application increased CO2eq by 30% compared with the untreated parkland soil. Shortly after compost addition, CO2 fluxes significantly increased and remained elevated until the end of the experiment. Soil CH4 emissions also increased, but the effect was small compared to CO2 (<1% CO2eq). Compost amendment caused an immediate short-term peak of N2O emissions. However, after the first day, which was characterized by a heavy rain event, the compost effect on N2O production was negligible. Compared to grass cultivation, legume planting resulted in a 20% reduction of CO2eq. This study shows that conserving mature secondary forests and the cultivation of herbaceous legumes on tropical urban soils, where open lawn spaces are not required, can reduce soil GHG emissions.
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•Forest soil and parkland soil cultivated with legumes had the lowest GWP.•Compost application increased soil GHG emissions.•Heavy precipitation and soil moisture were key factors for soil GHG fluxes.•Seasonality did not influence soil GHG flux patterns.
•We provide comprehensive data of SOC for managed land use in Austria.•SOC densities are highest in peatlands forests, and partially in grasslands.•Cropland soils are already managed to conserve the ...SOC stock.•The data serve as reference for the effect of future land management concepts.•Efforts to increase the SOC stocks are hampered by soil sealing.
We compiled information from different sources in order to establish a comprehensive map of the stock of soil organic carbon (SOC) in the upper 30 cm under different forms of land use for Austria. The information serves as a baseline for the evaluation of the potential of climate-change mitigation measures. SOC sequestration plays an important role in the discussion of terrestrial carbon (C) sinks and the size of the SOC pool is one of several quality measures for crop production and the national and regional food security. The baseline serves also for the evaluation of the effectiveness of adaptive land management in order to cope with climate change. Austrian croplands, grasslands, forests, and settlements contain 300 Mt SOC. Peatlands have the highest SOC density (220 t C/ha), yet cover only about 2% of the country. Forest soils store 106 t C/ha and comprise the largest pool due to the coverage of more than 4 Mha (48% of the country). Intensively and extensively managed grasslands cover 0.8 Mha (10%) and contain between 91 and 113 t C/ha, and cropland on 1.28 Mha (15%) hold on average 62 t C/ha. Due to the geographic heterogeneity of Austria with respect to climatic conditions, geology and soils, and topography the regional differences in SOC stocks are large. Measures to increase the SOC stock in cropland have been applied for 25 years within agri-environmental and climate-smart strategies. An increase of the total SOC pool is expected due to the afforestation and reforestation of marginal agricultural land and to a smaller extent due to the restoration of peatlands. A decline of the SOC stock is a consequence of land development for settlements and infrastructure.
Analyses of organic and inorganic carbon are of great interest in the field of soil analyses. Soil samples from a national monitoring project were provided for this study, including more than 130 ...forest sites from Austria. We investigated the humus layers (if present undecomposed litter (L), of mixed samples of F- (intermediate decomposed organic matter) and H-(highly decomposed organic matter) (FH)) and upper mineral soil layers (0–5 and 5–10 cm) of the samples. Mid-infrared spectra were recorded and evaluated by their band areas; subsequently we calculated models with the partial least squares approach. This was done by correlating calculated data of the mid-infrared spectra with gas-volumetrically determined carbonate values and measurements of organic carbon from an elemental analyzer. For carbonate determination, this approach gave satisfying results. For measurements of organic carbon, it was necessary to discriminate into humus layers and mineral soils or even more groups to obtain satisfactory correlations between spectroscopically determined and conventionally measured values. These additional factors were the presence of carbonate, the forest type, and the dominant tree species. In mineral soils, fewer subdivisions were necessary to obtain useful results. In humus layers, groupings of sites with more similar characteristics had to be formed in order to obtain satisfying results. The conclusion is that the chemical background of soil organic matter leading to different proportions of functional groups, especially in the less humified organic matter of the humus layers, plays a key role in analyses with mid-infrared spectroscopy. Keeping this in mind, the present approach has a significant potential for the prediction of properties of forest soil layers, such as, e.g., carbonate and organic carbon contents.
Summary
Background
There is a lack of knowledge on how people at increased risk of severe illness from Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) experienced the infection control measures. This study aimed ...to explore their perspectives and needs during the coronavirus outbreak.
Methods
A qualitative longitudinal interview study was conducted in Austria during lockdown due to COVID-19 containment and afterwards. People older than 65 years of age and/or affected by a chronic medical condition participated in individual telephone interviews at two time points. Thematic analysis was used to analyze the data and saturation was defined as no new emerging concepts in at least 10 subsequent interviews.
Results
Thematic saturation was reached when 33 individuals (75.8% female, mean age ± standard deviation SD 73.7±10.9 years) were included. A total of 44 lower level concepts were extracted and summarized into 6 higher level concepts. They included (i) a general positive attitude toward COVID-19 measures, (ii) challenges of being isolated from the community, (iii) deterioration of health status, (iv) difficulties with measures due to their health condition, (v) lack of physical contact and (vi) lack of information versus overload. Participants suggested environmental adaptations for strengthening resilience in people at increased risk of severe illness from COVID-19.
Conclusion
Strategies and interventions are needed to support people at risk under pandemic conditions. Their perceptions and needs should be addressed to reduce the potential deterioration of health conditions and ensure well-being even during prolonged periods of crisis.
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