Transposable elements (TEs) are major components of eukaryotic genomes. However, the extent of their impact on genome evolution, function, and disease remain a matter of intense interrogation. The ...rise of genomics and large-scale functional assays has shed new light on the multi-faceted activities of TEs and implies that they should no longer be marginalized. Here, we introduce the fundamental properties of TEs and their complex interactions with their cellular environment, which are crucial to understanding their impact and manifold consequences for organismal biology. While we draw examples primarily from mammalian systems, the core concepts outlined here are relevant to a broad range of organisms.
Cancer arises from a series of genetic and epigenetic changes, which result in abnormal expression or mutational activation of oncogenes, as well as suppression/inactivation of tumor suppressor ...genes. Aberrant expression of coding genes or long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) with oncogenic properties can be caused by translocations, gene amplifications, point mutations or other less characterized mechanisms. One such mechanism is the inappropriate usage of normally dormant, tissue-restricted or cryptic enhancers or promoters that serve to drive oncogenic gene expression. Dispersed across the human genome, endogenous retroviruses (ERVs) provide an enormous reservoir of autonomous gene regulatory modules, some of which have been co-opted by the host during evolution to play important roles in normal regulation of genes and gene networks. This review focuses on the "dark side" of such ERV regulatory capacity. Specifically, we discuss a growing number of examples of normally dormant or epigenetically repressed ERVs that have been harnessed to drive oncogenes in human cancer, a process we term onco-exaptation, and we propose potential mechanisms that may underlie this phenomenon.
The fact that transposable elements (TEs) can influence host gene expression was first recognized more than 50 years ago. However, since that time, TEs have been widely regarded as harmful genetic ...parasites-selfish elements that are rarely co-opted by the genome to serve a beneficial role. Here, we survey recent findings that relate to TE impact on host genes and remind the reader that TEs, in contrast to other noncoding parts of the genome, are uniquely suited to gene regulatory functions. We review recent studies that demonstrate the role of TEs in establishing and rewiring gene regulatory networks and discuss the overall ubiquity of exaptation. We suggest that although individuals within a population can be harmed by the deleterious effects of new TE insertions, the presence of TE sequences in a genome is of overall benefit to the population.
DNA methylation and histone H3 lysine 9 trimethylation (H3K9me3) play important roles in silencing of genes and retroelements. However, a comprehensive comparison of genes and repetitive elements ...repressed by these pathways has not been reported. Here we show that in mouse embryonic stem cells (mESCs), the genes upregulated after deletion of the H3K9 methyltransferase
Setdb1 are distinct from those derepressed in mESC deficient in the DNA methyltransferases Dnmt1, Dnmt3a, and Dnmt3b, with the exception of a small number of primarily germline-specific genes. Numerous endogenous retroviruses (ERVs) lose H3K9me3 and are concomitantly derepressed exclusively in SETDB1 knockout mESCs. Strikingly, ∼15% of upregulated genes are induced in association with derepression of promoter-proximal ERVs, half in the context of “chimeric” transcripts that initiate within these retroelements and splice to genic exons. Thus, SETDB1 plays a previously unappreciated yet critical role in inhibiting aberrant gene transcription by suppressing the expression of proximal ERVs.
► Predominantly distinct sets of genes are upregulated in SETDB1 KO versus DNMT TKO ESCs ► A subset of germline-specific genes are derepressed in SETDB1 KO and DNMT TKO ESCs ► Hundreds of ERVs lose H3K9me3 and are derepressed exclusively in SETDB1 KO cells ► A subset of induced ERVs transcribe into genic exons, generating chimeric transcripts
Transposable elements (TEs) are notable drivers of genetic innovation. Over evolutionary time, TE insertions can supply new promoter, enhancer, and insulator elements to protein-coding genes and ...establish novel, species-specific gene regulatory networks. Conversely, ongoing TE-driven insertional mutagenesis, nonhomologous recombination, and other potentially deleterious processes can cause sporadic disease by disrupting genome integrity or inducing abrupt gene expression changes. Here, we discuss recent evidence suggesting that TEs may contribute regulatory innovation to mammalian embryonic and pluripotent states as a means to ward off complete repression by their host genome.
Mammalian Endogenous Retroviruses Mager, Dixie L; Stoye, Jonathan P
Microbiology spectrum,
02/2015, Letnik:
3, Številka:
1
Journal Article
Recenzirano
Over 40% of mammalian genomes comprise the products of reverse transcription. Among such retrotransposed sequences are those characterized by the presence of long terminal repeats (LTRs), including ...the endogenous retroviruses (ERVs), which are inherited genetic elements closely resembling the proviruses formed following exogenous retrovirus infection. Sequences derived from ERVs make up at least 8 to 10% of the human and mouse genomes and range from ancient sequences that predate mammalian divergence to elements that are currently still active. In this chapter we describe the discovery, classification and origins of ERVs in mammals and consider cellular mechanisms that have evolved to control their expression. We also discuss the negative effects of ERVs as agents of genetic disease and cancer and review examples of ERV protein domestication to serve host functions, as in placental development. Finally, we address growing evidence that the gene regulatory potential of ERV LTRs has been exploited multiple times during evolution to regulate genes and gene networks. Thus, although recently endogenized retroviral elements are often pathogenic, those that survive the forces of negative selection become neutral components of the host genome or can be harnessed to serve beneficial roles.
The "arms race" relationship between transposable elements (TEs) and their host has promoted a series of epigenetic silencing mechanisms directed against TEs. Retrotransposons, a class of TEs, are ...often located in repressed regions and are thought to induce heterochromatin formation and spreading. However, direct evidence for TE-induced local heterochromatin in mammals is surprisingly scarce. To examine this phenomenon, we chose two mouse embryonic stem (ES) cell lines that possess insertionally polymorphic retrotransposons (IAP, ETn/MusD, and LINE elements) at specific loci in one cell line but not the other. Employing ChIP-seq data for these cell lines, we show that IAP elements robustly induce H3K9me3 and H4K20me3 marks in flanking genomic DNA. In contrast, such heterochromatin is not induced by LINE copies and only by a minority of polymorphic ETn/MusD copies. DNA methylation is independent of the presence of IAP copies, since it is present in flanking regions of both full and empty sites. Finally, such spreading into genes appears to be rare, since the transcriptional start sites of very few genes are less than one Kb from an IAP. However, the B3galtl gene is subject to transcriptional silencing via IAP-induced heterochromatin. Hence, although rare, IAP-induced local heterochromatin spreading into nearby genes may influence expression and, in turn, host fitness.
Transposable element (TE) insertions are responsible for a significant fraction of spontaneous germ line mutations reported in inbred mouse strains. This major contribution of TEs to the mutational ...landscape in mouse contrasts with the situation in human, where their relative contribution as germ line insertional mutagens is much lower. In this focussed review, we provide comprehensive lists of TE-induced mouse mutations, discuss the different TE types involved in these insertional mutations and elaborate on particularly interesting cases. We also discuss differences and similarities between the mutational role of TEs in mice and humans.
Patients with chronic myeloid leukemia (CML) often require lifelong therapy with ABL1 tyrosine kinase inhibitors (TKIs) due to a persisting TKI-resistant population of leukemic stem cells (LSCs). ...From transcriptome profiling, we show integrin-linked kinase (ILK), a key constituent of focal adhesions, is highly expressed in TKI-nonresponsive patient cells and their LSCs. Genetic and pharmacological inhibition of ILK impaired the survival of nonresponder patient cells, sensitizing them to TKIs, even in the presence of protective niche cells. Furthermore, ILK inhibition eliminated TKI-refractory LSCs from patients, but not normal HSCs, in vitro and in vivo. RNA-sequencing and functional validation studies implicated an important role of ILK in maintaining a requisite level of mitochondrial oxidative metabolism in highly purified, quiescent LSCs. Thus, these findings point to ILK as a critical survival mediator to TKIs and quiescent stem cells, offering an attractive therapeutic target and model for curative combination therapies in stem-cell-driven cancers.
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•The composition of focal adhesions mediating niche interactions is altered in LSCs•ILK is a focal adhesion component required for LSC self-renewal in vivo•ILK inhibition sensitizes therapy-resistant patient LSCs to standard chemotherapy•The mitochondrial metabolism of quiescent LSCs is perturbed by ILK inhibition
Cancer stem cells that reside in a protective niche are considered the culprit in therapy failure and relapse in most patients. Rothe et al. identified a targetable vulnerability within focal adhesions of leukemic stem cells that can resensitize these cells from therapy-resistant patients to targeted cancer therapy.
The ribosome is an RNA-protein complex that is essential for translation in all domains of life. The structural and catalytic core of the ribosome is its ribosomal RNA (rRNA). While mutations in ...ribosomal protein (RP) genes are known drivers of oncogenesis, oncogenic rRNA variants have remained elusive. We identify a cancer-specific single-nucleotide variation in 18S rRNA at nucleotide 1248.U in up to 45.9% of patients with colorectal carcinoma (CRC) and present across >22 cancer types. This is the site of a unique hyper-modified base, 1-methyl-3-α-amino-α-carboxyl-propyl pseudouridine (m1acp3Ψ), a >1-billion-years-conserved RNA modification at the peptidyl decoding site of the ribosome. A subset of CRC tumors we call hypo-m1acp3Ψ shows sub-stoichiometric m1acp3Ψ modification, unlike normal control tissues. An m1acp3Ψ knockout model and hypo-m1acp3Ψ patient tumors share a translational signature characterized by highly abundant ribosomal proteins. Thus, m1acp3Ψ-deficient rRNA forms an uncharacterized class of “onco-ribosome” which may serve as a chemotherapeutic target for treating cancer patients.
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•45% of colon cancers sub-stochiometrically lose m1acp3Ψ ribosomal RNA modification•22+ distinct cancer types show hypo-modification of m1acp3Ψ•The >1-billion-years-conserved m1acp3Ψ is involved in ribosomal P site stability•Loss of m1acp3Ψ modification drives heterogenous translation of RP mRNAs
Babaian et al. discover that the Eukarya conserved rRNA hyper-modification m1acp3Ψ is sub-stochiometrically lost in almost half of human colon cancer patients. This disease-specific perturbation at the ribosomal decoding site results in a heterogeneous translational response and may drive tumor proliferation.
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