We explore a newly proposed channel to create binary black holes of stellar origin. This scenario applies to massive, tight binaries where mixing induced by rotation and tides transports the products ...of hydrogen burning throughout the stellar envelopes. This slowly enriches the entire star with helium, preventing the build-up of an internal chemical gradient. The stars remain compact as they evolve nearly chemically homogeneously, eventually forming two black holes, which we estimate typically merge 4–11 Gyr after formation. Like other proposed channels, this evolutionary pathway suffers from significant theoretical uncertainties, but could be constrained in the near future by data from advanced ground-based gravitational-wave detectors. We perform Monte Carlo simulations of the expected merger rate over cosmic time to explore the implications and uncertainties. Our default model for this channel yields a local binary black hole merger rate of about 10 Gpc−3 yr−1 at redshift z = 0, peaking at twice this rate at z = 0.5. This means that this channel is competitive, in terms of expected rates, with the conventional formation scenarios that involve a common-envelope phase during isolated binary evolution or dynamical interaction in a dense cluster. The events from this channel may be distinguished by the preference for nearly equal-mass components and high masses, with typical total masses between 50 and 110 M⊙. Unlike the conventional isolated binary evolution scenario that involves shrinkage of the orbit during a common-envelope phase, short time delays are unlikely for this channel, implying that we do not expect mergers at high redshift.
It is often assumed that gravitational-wave (GW) events resulting from the merger of stellar-mass black holes are unlikely to produce electromagnetic (EM) counterparts. We point out that the ...progenitor binary has probably shed a mass 10 M during its prior evolution. If even a tiny fraction of this gas is retained in a circumbinary disk, the sudden mass loss and recoil of the merged black hole shocks and heats it within hours of the GW event. Whether the resulting EM signal is detectable is uncertain. The optical depth through the disk is likely to be high enough that the prompt emission consists only of photons from its optically thin skin, while the majority may take years to emerge. However, if some mechanism can release more photons in a time comparable to the few-hour energy production time, the peak luminosity of the EM signal could be detectable. For a disk retaining only ∼10−3 of the mass shed in the earlier binary evolution, medium-energy X-rays to infrared emission would be observable hours after the GW event for source distances of ∼500 Mpc. Events like this may already have been observed, but ascribed to unidentified active galactic nuclei. Improved sky localization should eventually allow identification based on spatial coincidence. A detection would provide unique constraints on formation scenarios and potentially offer tests of strong-field general relativity. Accordingly, we argue that the high scientific payoff of an EM detection fully justifies search campaigns.
ABSTRACT The initial mass function (IMF), binary fraction, and distributions of binary parameters (mass ratios, separations, and eccentricities) are indispensable inputs for simulations of stellar ...populations. It is often claimed that these are poorly constrained, significantly affecting evolutionary predictions. Recently, dedicated observing campaigns have provided new constraints on the initial conditions for massive stars. Findings include a larger close binary fraction and a stronger preference for very tight systems. We investigate the impact on the predicted merger rates of neutron stars and black holes. Despite the changes with previous assumptions, we only find an increase of less than a factor of 2 (insignificant compared with evolutionary uncertainties of typically a factor of 10-100). We further show that the uncertainties in the new initial binary properties do not significantly affect (within a factor of 2) our predictions of double compact object merger rates. An exception is the uncertainty in IMF (variations by a factor of 6 up and down). No significant changes in the distributions of final component masses, mass ratios, chirp masses, and delay times are found. We conclude that the predictions are, for practical purposes, robust against uncertainties in the initial conditions concerning binary parameters, with the exception of the IMF. This eliminates an important layer of the many uncertain assumptions affecting the predictions of merger detection rates with the gravitational wave detectors aLIGO/aVirgo.
We explore the predictions for detectable gravitational-wave signals from merging binary black holes formed through chemically homogeneous evolution in massive short-period stellar binaries. We find ...that ∼500 events per year could be detected with advanced ground-based detectors operating at full sensitivity. We analyse the distribution of detectable events, and conclude that there is a very strong preference for detecting events with nearly equal components (mass ratio >0.66 at 90 per cent confidence in our default model) and high masses (total source-frame mass between 57 and 103 M⊙ at 90 per cent confidence). We consider multiple alternative variations to analyse the sensitivity to uncertainties in the evolutionary physics and cosmological parameters, and conclude that while the rates are sensitive to assumed variations, the mass distributions are robust predictions. Finally, we consider the recently reported results of the analysis of the first 16 double-coincident days of the O1 LIGO (Laser Interferometer Gravitational-wave Observatory) observing run, and find that this formation channel is fully consistent with the inferred parameters of the GW150914 binary black hole detection and the inferred merger rate.
Detections of gravitational waves are now starting to probe the mass distribution of stellar mass black holes (BHs). Robust predictions from stellar models are needed to interpret these. Theory ...predicts the existence of a gap in the BH mass distribution because of pair-instability supernovae. The maximum BH mass below the gap is the result of pulsational mass loss. We evolve massive helium stars through their late hydrodynamical phases of evolution using the open-source MESA stellar evolution code. We find that the location of the lower edge of the mass gap at 45 is remarkably robust against variations in the metallicity ( 3 ), the treatment of internal mixing ( 1 ), and stellar wind mass loss ( 4 ), making it the most robust predictor for the final stages of the evolution of massive stars. The reason is that the onset of the instability is dictated by the near-final core mass, which in turn sets the resulting BH mass. However, varying the reaction rate within its 1 uncertainties shifts the location of the gap between 40 and 56 . We provide updated analytic fits for population synthesis simulations. Our results imply that the detection of merging BHs can provide constraints on nuclear astrophysics. Furthermore, the robustness against metallicity suggests that there is a universal maximum for the location of the lower edge of the gap, which is insensitive to the formation environment and redshift for first-generation BHs. This is promising for the possibility to use the location of the gap as a "standard siren" across the universe.
The presence of a nearby companion alters the evolution of massive stars in binary systems, leading to phenomena such as stellar mergers, x-ray binaries, and gamma-ray bursts. Unambiguous constraints ...on the fraction of massive stars affected by binary interaction were lacking. We simultaneously measured all relevant binary characteristics in a sample of Galactic massive O stars and quantified the frequency and nature of binary interactions. More than 70% of all massive stars will exchange mass with a companion, leading to a binary merger in one-third of the cases. These numbers greatly exceed previous estimates and imply that binary interaction dominates the evolution of massive stars, with implications for populations of massive stars and their supernovae.
Pair-instability and pulsational pair-instability supernovae (PPISNe) have not been unambiguously observed so far. They are, however, promising candidates for the progenitors of the heaviest binary ...black hole (BBH) mergers detected. If these BBHs are the product of binary evolution, then PPISNe could occur in very close binaries. Motivated by this, we discuss the implications of a PPISN happening with a close binary companion and what impact these events have on the formation of merging BBHs through binary evolution. For this, we have computed a set of models of metal-poor (Z /10) single helium stars using the MESA software instrument. For PPISN progenitors with pre-pulse masses >50 M we find that, after a pulse, heat deposited throughout the layers of the star that remain bound causes it to expand to more than 100 R for periods of 102-104 yr depending on the mass of the progenitor. This results in long-lived phases of Roche lobe overflow or even common-envelope events if there is a close binary companion, leading to additional electromagnetic transients associated with PPISN eruptions. If we ignore the effect of these interactions, we find that mass loss from PPISNe reduces the final BH spin by ∼30%, induces eccentricities below the threshold of detectability of the LISA observatory, and can produce a double-peaked distribution of measured chirp masses in BBH mergers observed by ground-based detectors.
Many young, massive stars are found in close binaries. Using population synthesis simulations we predict the likelihood of a companion star being present when these massive stars end their lives as ...core-collapse supernovae (SNe). We focus on stripped-envelope SNe, whose progenitors have lost their outer hydrogen and possibly helium layers before explosion. We use these results to interpret new Hubble Space Telescope observations of the site of the broad-lined Type Ic SN 2002ap, 14 years post-explosion. For a subsolar metallicity consistent with SN 2002ap, we expect a main-sequence (MS) companion present in about two thirds of all stripped-envelope SNe and a compact companion (likely a stripped helium star or a white dwarf/neutron star/black hole) in about 5% of cases. About a quarter of progenitors are single at explosion (originating from initially single stars, mergers, or disrupted systems). All of the latter scenarios require a massive progenitor, inconsistent with earlier studies of SN 2002ap. Our new, deeper upper limits exclude the presence of an MS companion star >8-10 M , ruling out about 40% of all stripped-envelope SN channels. The most likely scenario for SN 2002ap includes nonconservative binary interaction of a primary star initially 23 M . Although unlikely (<1% of the scenarios), we also discuss the possibility of an exotic reverse merger channel for broad-lined Type Ic events. Finally, we explore how our results depend on the metallicity and the model assumptions and discuss how additional searches for companions can constrain the physics that govern the evolution of SN progenitors.
The majority of massive stars live in binary or multiple systems and will interact with a companion during their lifetimes, which helps to explain the observed diversity of core-collapse supernovae. ...Donor stars in binary systems can lose most of their hydrogen-rich envelopes through mass transfer. As a result, not only are the surface properties affected, but so is the core structure. However, most calculations of the core-collapse properties of massive stars rely on single-star models. We present a systematic study of the difference between the pre-supernova structures of single stars and stars of the same initial mass (11–21
M
⊙
) that have been stripped due to stable post-main-sequence mass transfer at solar metallicity. We present the pre-supernova core composition with novel diagrams that give an intuitive representation of the isotope distribution. As shown in previous studies, at the edge of the carbon-oxygen core, the binary-stripped star models contain an extended gradient of carbon, oxygen, and neon. This layer remains until core collapse and is more extended in mass for higher initial stellar masses. It originates from the receding of the convective helium core during core helium burning in binary-stripped stars, which does not occur in single-star models. We find that this same evolutionary phase leads to systematic differences in the final density and nuclear energy generation profiles. Binary-stripped star models have systematically higher total masses of carbon at the moment of core collapse compared to single-star models, which likely results in systematically different supernova yields. In about half of our models, the silicon-burning and oxygen-rich layers merge after core silicon burning. We discuss the implications of our findings for the “explodability”, supernova observations, and nucleosynthesis of these stars. Our models are publicly available and can be readily used as input for detailed supernova simulations.
Abstract
We show that black hole high-mass X-ray binaries (HMXBs) with O- or B-type donor stars and relatively short orbital periods, of order one week to several months may survive spiral-in, to ...then form Wolf–Rayet (WR) X-ray binaries with orbital periods of order a day to a few days; while in systems where the compact star is a neutron star, HMXBs with these orbital periods never survive spiral-in. We therefore predict that WR X-ray binaries can only harbour black holes. The reason why black hole HMXBs with these orbital periods may survive spiral-in is: the combination of a radiative envelope of the donor star and a high mass of the compact star. In this case, when the donor begins to overflow its Roche lobe, the systems are able to spiral in slowly with stable Roche lobe overflow, as is shown by the system SS433. In this case, the transferred mass is ejected from the vicinity of the compact star (so-called isotropic re-emission mass-loss mode, or SS433-like mass-loss), leading to gradual spiral-in. If the mass ratio of donor and black hole is ≳3.5, these systems will go into common-envelope evolution and are less likely to survive. If they survive, they produce WR X-ray binaries with orbital periods of a few hours to one day. Several of the well-known WR+O binaries in our Galaxy and the Magellanic Clouds, with orbital periods in the range between a week and several months, are expected to evolve into close WR–black hole binaries, which may later produce close double black holes. The galactic formation rate of double black holes resulting from such systems is still uncertain, as it depends on several poorly known factors in this evolutionary picture. It might possibly be as high as ∼10−5 yr−1.
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