The Late Bronze Age world of the Eastern Mediterranean, a rich linkage of Aegean, Egyptian, Syro-Palestinian, and Hittite civilizations, collapsed famously 3200 years ago and has remained one of the ...mysteries of the ancient world since the event's retrieval began in the late 19(th) century AD/CE. Iconic Egyptian bas-reliefs and graphic hieroglyphic and cuneiform texts portray the proximate cause of the collapse as the invasions of the "Peoples-of-the-Sea" at the Nile Delta, the Turkish coast, and down into the heartlands of Syria and Palestine where armies clashed, famine-ravaged cities abandoned, and countrysides depopulated. Here we report palaeoclimate data from Cyprus for the Late Bronze Age crisis, alongside a radiocarbon-based chronology integrating both archaeological and palaeoclimate proxies, which reveal the effects of abrupt climate change-driven famine and causal linkage with the Sea People invasions in Cyprus and Syria. The statistical analysis of proximate and ultimate features of the sequential collapse reveals the relationships of climate-driven famine, sea-borne-invasion, region-wide warfare, and politico-economic collapse, in whose wake new societies and new ideologies were created.
Xanthomonas arboricola pv. juglandis (hereafter X. juglandis) is the etiological agent of walnut blight, the most important bacterial disease affecting walnut production worldwide. Currently, the ...disease is treated mainly with copper-derived compounds (e.g., CuSO4) despite the evidence of genetic resistance in these strains. Regarding the effectiveness and sustainability, the use of a bacteriophage appears to be a biocontrol alternative to reduce X. juglandis load and symptomatology of walnut blight. Here, the phages f20-Xaj, f29-Xaj, and f30-Xaj were characterized, and their effectiveness in walnut orchards against walnut blight was determined. These bacteriophages showed a specific lytic infection in X. juglandis strains isolated from Chile and France. Phylogenetic analysis of the complete genome of f20-Xaj and f30-Xaj indicates that these phages belong to the Pradovirus genus. In the field, the cocktail of these bacteriophages showed similar effectivity to CuSO4 in the reduction of incidence and severity in walnut tissue. Moreover, the bacterial load of X. juglandis was significantly reduced in the presence of bacteriophages in contrast to a CuSO4 treatment. These results show that the use of bacteriophages can be an alternative to combat the symptoms of walnut blight caused by X. juglandis.
Although human activity is considered to be a major driving force affecting the distribution and dynamics of Mediterranean ecosystems, the full consequences of projected climate variability and ...relative sea-level changes on fragile coastal ecosystems for the next century are still unknown. It is unclear how these waterfront ecosystems can be sustained, as well as the services they provide, when relative sea-level rise and global warming are expected to exert even greater pressures in the near future (drought, habitat degradation and accelerated shoreline retreat). Haifa Bay, northern Israel, has recorded a landward sea invasion, with a maximum sea penetration 4,000 years ago, during an important period of urban development and climate instability. Here, we examine the cumulative pressure of climate shifts and relative sea-level changes in order to investigate the patterns and mechanisms behind forest replacement by an open-steppe. We provide a first comprehensive and integrative study for the southern Levant that shows that (i) human impact, through urbanization, has been the main driver behind ecological erosion in the past 4,000 years; (ii) climate pressures have reinforced this impact; and (iii) local coastal changes have played a decisive role in eroding ecosystem resilience. These three parameters, which have closely interacted during the last 4,000 years in Haifa Bay, clearly indicate that for an efficient management of the coastal habitats, anthropogenic pressures linked to urban development must be reduced in order to mitigate the predicted effects of Global Change.
The 13(th) century BC witnessed the zenith of the Aegean and Eastern Mediterranean civilizations which declined at the end of the Bronze Age, ∼3200 years ago. Weakening of this ancient flourishing ...Mediterranean world shifted the political and economic centres of gravity away from the Levant towards Classical Greece and Rome, and led, in the long term, to the emergence of the modern western civilizations. Textual evidence from cuneiform tablets and Egyptian reliefs from the New Kingdom relate that seafaring tribes, the Sea Peoples, were the final catalyst that put the fall of cities and states in motion. However, the lack of a stratified radiocarbon-based archaeology for the Sea People event has led to a floating historical chronology derived from a variety of sources spanning dispersed areas. Here, we report a stratified radiocarbon-based archaeology with anchor points in ancient epigraphic-literary sources, Hittite-Levantine-Egyptian kings and astronomical observations to precisely date the Sea People event. By confronting historical and science-based archaeology, we establish an absolute age range of 1192-1190 BC for terminal destructions and cultural collapse in the northern Levant. This radiocarbon-based archaeology has far-reaching implications for the wider Mediterranean, where an elaborate network of international relations and commercial activities are intertwined with the history of civilizations.
The Mediterranean climate and its variability depend on global-scale climate patterns. Close correlations appear when comparing Holocene palaeoenvironmental data (lake levels, fluvial activity, ...Mediterranean surface temperature and salinity, marine sedimentation) with the main stages of the history of the circum-Mediterranean vegetation. They indicate an evolution of the Mediterranean biome controlled by the climate and emphasize the teleconnections between the climate of the Mediterranean area and the global climatic system. In the circum-Mediterranean area, the Holocene can be divided into three periods: a lower humid Holocene (11
500–7000
cal
BP) interrupted by dry episodes; a transition phase (7000–5500
cal
BP) during which occurred a decrease in insolation as well as the installation of the present atmosphere circulation in the northern hemisphere; and an upper Holocene (5500
cal
BP—present) characterized by an aridification process. Throughout the Holocene, humans used and modified more or less strongly the environment but the climatic changes were the determining factors of the evolution of the Mediterranean biome. Societies had to adapt to natural environmental variations, their impact on the environment increasing the ecological consequences of the global changes.
Storm surges, leading to catastrophic coastal flooding, are amongst the most feared natural hazards due to the high population densities and economic importance of littoral areas. Using the Central ...Mediterranean Sea as a model system, we provide strong evidence for enhanced periods of storminess leading to coastal flooding during the last 4500 years. We show that long-term correlations can be drawn between storminess and solar activity, acting on cycles of around 2200-yr and 230-yr. We also find that phases of increased storms and coastal flooding have impacted upon mid- to late Holocene agricultural activity on the Adriatic coast. Based on the general trend observed during the second half of the 20(th) century, climate models are predicting a weakening of Mediterranean storminess. By contrast, our new data suggest that a decrease in solar activity will increase and intensify the risk of frequent flooding in coastal areas.
A pedological and anthracological study carried out in the Moroccan High Atlas mountains on the soil profile along a
slope currently occupied by Quercus ilex subsp. ballota (Desf.) Samp., allowed us ...to reconstruct its history and to account for changes in vegetation after major events whether climatological or anthropogenic. The
analysis of the profile reveals two superimposed soils. The organic matter at the base of the slope (1400 m)
shows an abnormal distribution with a deep horizon (55 – 70 cm) enriched in organic matter including many
fragments of charcoal, which indicate a fire dated at 4300 – 4100 cal. BP. This horizon represents the old
soil surface covered by colluviation on which a new soil has formed. The latter represents a surface organic horizon which is rich in charcoal dating back to 80 cal. BP. The anthracological study shows the existence of charcoal of Aleppo pine (Pinus halepensis Mill.) dating back at about 3800 years BP (about 4300 – 4100 cal. BP). The presence of this species, whose current upper limit is located at about 200 m lower down,
indicates the existence of fires occurring during dry periods already revealed in the western Mediterranean
between 5300 and 3400 cal. BP. The other plant remnants indicate a vegetation consisting mainly of Cistus
sp. and Quercus sp. This study shows, thus, the salient role of Mediterranean forest fires in the spatial-temporal
redistribution phenomena of plant species and also in the dynamics of terrestrial ecosystems.
Des analyses pédologiques et anthracologiques réalisées dans le Haut Atlas Marocain sur
un profil de sol d’un versant, actuellement occupé par Quercus ilex subsp. ballota (Desf.) Samp., permettent de reconstituer l’histoire de ce versant et de rendre compte de l’évolution de la végétation suite à des événements
majeurs climatiques ou anthropiques. L’analyse d’un profil montre deux sols superposés. L’étude
de la matière organique à la base du versant (1450 m) montre une distribution anormale avec un horizon profond (55 – 70 cm) enrichi en matière organique dans lequel on retrouve de nombreux charbons de bois, qui renseignent sur un incendie daté de 4300 – 4100 cal. BP. Cet horizon représente l’ancienne surface du sol recouverte par des colluvionnements sur lesquels s’est développé un autre sol. Ce dernier présente un horizon organique de surface également riche en charbon de bois daté environ 80 cal. BP. L’étude anthracologique montre la présence de charbons de Pin d’Alep (Pinus halepensis Mill.) datés d’environ 3800 ans BP (environ 4300 – 4100 cal. B. P.). La présence de cette essence, dont la limite supérieure actuelle est située environ 200 m plus bas, traduit l’existence d’incendies se produisant lors des périodes sèches déjà révélés dans le bassin méditerranéen occidental entre 5300 et 3400 cal. B. P. Les autres restes végétaux reflètent une
végétation constituée essentiellement de Cistus sp. et de Quercus sp. Cette étude montre ainsi le rôle important des incendies des forêts méditerranéennes dans les phénomènes de redistribution spatio-temporelle des espèces végétales et dans la dynamique des écosystèmes terrestres.
Tahiri Hasna,Otto Thierry wolfgang,Eddouks Mohamed,Revel Jean-Claude,Jalut Guy,Alifriqui Mohamed,Gauquelin Thierry,Hafidi Mohamed. Étude pédo-anthracologique dans la région de Toufliht (Haut Atlas Marocain) : Mise en évidence d’un paléo-incendie et d’un changement de la couverture forestière vers 4500 – 4000 BP (5300 – 4200 cal. BP). In: Revue d'Écologie (La Terre et La Vie), tome 68, n°3-4, 2013. pp. 231-242.
The history of the Eastern Mediterranean is punctuated by major crises that have influenced many of the region's established socioeconomic models. Recent studies have underscored the role of drought ...and temperature oscillations in driving changes but attempts to quantify their magnitude remain equivocal, hindering long‐term assessments of the potential interplay between climate and society. Here, we fill this knowledge gap using a 6,000‐year pollen‐based reconstruction of temperature and precipitation from Hala Sultan Tekke, Cyprus. We find that major social changes and plague outbreaks often occurred in tandem with cooler climate conditions, with anomalies ranging from −3 ± 0.4 °C to −1 ± 0.5 °C, coupled with changing precipitation patterns. We suggest that major climate changes may weaken societies by affecting primary livelihood systems. This long‐term view highlights recurrent cold periods in the Eastern Mediterranean's climate history and advocates that, despite frequent adversity and pandemics, Near Eastern populations adapted and were ultimately resilient to major climate changes.
Plain Language Summary
During the last 6,000 years, the Eastern Mediterranean's climate has been characterized by several periods of marked climate deterioration and cooling. Many of these cooler phases were punctuated by historical crises and outbreaks of plague, suggesting that climate may partially influence social unrest and the spread of scourges. Drought has always been a significant component of past climate changes, but temperature deviations also appear to be as important in fully comprehending the complex interplay between climate and societies.
Key Points
A 6,000‐year climatic reconstruction from Cyprus suggests that cold conditions have affected past societies as much as drought events
Five important cold periods were identified at 5250 ± 20, 4215 ± 40, 3200 ± 90, 1400 ± 70, and 620 ± 20 year BP
Each cold period is consistent with a significant instability in precipitation, mainly for winter and spring seasons
Venice Lagoon (Italy), the largest wetland in the Mediterranean basin, is extremely vulnerable to variations in relative sea level (RSL) which is locally defined by an average rising rate of about ...2.5mm per year, resulting from both sea-level change and vertical land movements. The environmental pressures stemming from projected higher RSL rising rates will have a profound impact on Venetian coastal ecosystems with a significant loss of wetlands partly due to a drastic reduction of salt marsh habitats. To understand how changes in marine influence could create such ecological upheaval in the near future, and fully remodel these coastal salt marshes, we reconstructed 5650 years of RSL rise history and land subsidence impacts on ecosystem dynamics during the Holocene transgression of Venice Lagoon. We show that the evolution of ecosystems mainly mirrors the gradual intrusion of salt water that progressively reshaped the coastal vegetation by turning the area into salt lagoon habitats. Before marine influence became dominant, the area was mainly fed by substantial freshwater supplies allowing the development of a diversified alluvial vegetation. Environmental pressures increased markedly about 6800–6600 years ago when seawater began to significantly influence the area, affecting marsh-swamp ecosystems. These marine inputs promoted the spread of halophytic and salt-tolerant vegetation types which laid the foundations for what would become the current salt marsh habitats. Venice Lagoon serves as a stark reminder of how rising sea levels, accompanied by increased saltwater intrusion into freshwater habitats and adjacent lands, can drastically alter and reshape pre-existing ecosystems. The lagoon's long-term ecological record indicates that contemporary fluctuations in RSL pose a substantial ecological threat, potentially culminating in a major upheaval of aquatic habitats in the near future.
•New curve for the Holocene RSL history of Venice Lagoon.•Freshwater wetlands transitioned into salt marshes around 6655 ± 70 BP.•A first ecological upheaval resulted from marine intrusions.•Projected sea-level rise will generate a second ecological upheaval.
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