Wood contains a large amount of air, even in functional xylem. Air embolisms in the xylem affect water transport and can determine plant growth and survival. Embolisms are usually estimated with ...laborious hydraulic methods, which can be prone to several artefacts.
Here, we describe a new method for estimating embolisms that is based on air flow measurements of entire branches. To calculate the amount of air flowing out of the branch, a vacuum was applied to the cut bases of branches under different water potentials.
We first investigated the source of air by determining whether it came from inside or outside the branch. Second, we compared embolism curves according to air flow or hydraulic measurements in 15 vessel- and tracheid-bearing species to test the hypothesis that the air flow is related to embolism.
Air flow came almost exclusively from air inside the branch during the 2.5-min measurements and was strongly related to embolism. We propose a new embolism measurement method that is simple, effective, rapid and inexpensive, and that allows several measurements on the same branch, thus opening up new possibilities for studying plant hydraulics.
The pneumatic method has been introduced to quantify embolism resistance in plant xylem of various organs by applying a partial vacuum to cut-open xylem. Despite the similarity in vulnerability ...curves between the pneumatic and other methods, a modeling approach is needed to investigate if changes in xylem embolism during dehydration can be accurately quantified based on gas diffusion kinetics. Therefore, a unit pipe pneumatic (UPPn) model was developed to estimate gas extraction from intact conduits, which were axially interconnected by inter-conduit pit membranes to cut-open conduits. The physical laws used included Fick's law for diffusion, Henry's law for gas concentration partitioning between liquid and gas phases at equilibrium and the ideal gas law. The UPPn model showed that 91% of the extracted gas came from the first five series of embolized, intact conduits and only 9% from the aqueous phase after 15 s of simulation. Considering alternative gas sources, embolism resistance measured with a pneumatron device was systematically overestimated by 2-17%, which corresponded to a typical measuring error of 0.11 MPa for P50 (the water potential equivalent to 50% of the maximum amount of gas extracted). It is concluded that pneumatic vulnerability curves directly measure embolism of intact conduits due to the fast movement of gas across interconduit pit membranes, while gas extraction from sap and diffusion across hydrated cell walls is about 100 times slower. We expect that the UPPn model will also contribute to the understanding of embolism propagation based on temporal gas dynamics.
Morpho-physiological strategies to deal with water deficit vary among citrus species and the chemical signaling through ABA and anatomical, hydraulic, and physiological traits were evaluated in ...saplings of Rangpur lime, Swingle citrumelo and Valencia sweet orange. Trunk and roots of Swingle citrumelo presented lower vessel diameter and higher vessel frequency as compared to the other species. However, relative water content at the turgor loss point (RWCTLP), the osmotic potential at full turgor (Ψ0), the osmotic potential at the turgor loss point (ΨTLP), bulk modulus of elasticity (ε) and the xylem water potential when hydraulic conductivity is reduced by 50% (Ψ50) and 88% (Ψ88) indicated similar hydraulic traits among citrus species, with Rangpur lime showing the highest hydraulic safety margin. Roots of Rangpur lime and Swingle citrumelo were more water conductive than ones of Valencia sweet orange, which was linked to higher stomatal conductance. Chemical signaling through ABA prevented shoot dehydration in Rangpur lime under water deficit, with this species showing a more conservative stomatal behavior, sensing, and responding rapidly to low soil moisture. Taken together, our results suggest that Rangpur lime – the drought tolerant species – has an improved control of leaf water status due to chemical signaling and effective stomatal regulation for reducing water loss as well as decreased root hydraulic conductivity for saving water resources under limiting conditions.
•Morpho-physiological strategies to deal with water deficit were studied in three citrus species.•Roots of Rangpur lime and Swingle citrumelo were more water conductive than ones of Valencia sweet orange.•Rangpur lime produced more ABA under water stress.•Rangpur lime has a conservative stomatal behavior, responding rapidly to drought.•ABA signaling, stomatal regulation of transpiration and low root hydraulic conductivity are linked to drought tolerance.
The Pneumatron device measures gas diffusion kinetics in the xylem of plants. The device provides an easy, low-cost, and powerful tool for research on plant water relations and gas exchange. Here, we ...describe in detail how to construct and operate this device to estimate embolism resistance of angiosperm xylem, and how to analyse pneumatic data. Simple and more elaborated ways of constructing a Pneumatron are shown, either using wires, a breadboard, or a printed circuit board. The instrument is based on an open-source hardware and software system, which allows users to operate it in an automated or semi-automated way. A step-by-step manual and a troubleshooting section are provided. An excel spreadsheet and an R-script are also presented for fast and easy data analysis. This manual aims at helping users to avoid common mistakes, such as unstable measurements of the minimum and maximum amount of gas discharged from xylem tissue, which has major consequences for estimating embolism resistance. Major advantages of the Pneumatron device include its automated and accurate measurements of gas diffusion rates, including highly precise measurements of the gas volume in intact, embolised conduits. It is currently unclear if the method can also be applied to woody monocots, gymnosperm species that possess torus-margo pit membranes, or to herbaceous species.
•Canopy photosynthesis was evaluated in field-grown sugarcane plants.•There is large genotypic variation in photosynthetic capacity.•Photosynthetic plasticity due to self-shading is ...genotype-dependent.•Light availability determines the CO2 uptake by sugarcane.•Photosynthetic capacity is not reached under natural conditions.
As a result of self-shading, a large fraction of a plant's leaf area is exposed to low light levels, causing photosynthesis to occur under limiting light conditions. The aim of this study was to evaluate photosynthesis in the canopy of two sugarcane varieties grown under field conditions in view of the effects of self-shading on photosynthetic metabolism. Photosynthesis response curves to increases in CO2 partial pressure (A/Ci) and light intensity (A/Q) were obtained for leaves from the upper (leaf +2) and lower (leaf +5) canopy layers, and the leaf nitrogen and chlorophyll content was also evaluated. The IACSP93-2060 genotype, which shows higher self-shading, did not exhibit differences in photosynthetic capacity between canopy layers, presenting similarities in C4 maximum RubisCO capacity (Vmax) and A/Q-derived parameters when the canopy layers were compared. This pattern was most likely the result of light acclimation, with IACSP93-2060 showing increased photosynthetic nitrogen use efficiency in the lower canopy layer. Despite higher light availability due to a lower level of self-shading, the IACSP95-3028 genotype showed a decrease in photosynthetic capacity in the lower layer. This response was related to a decrease in Vmax, indicating a biochemical limitation of photosynthesis due to self-shading. Our data on stomatal conductance did not show any differences in the stomatal limitation of photosynthesis in both canopy layers of both varieties. In general, self-shading reduced the chlorophyll a and b and leaf N concentrations without significant changes in the PEPCase activity (given by the initial slope of the A/Ci curve) in the lower canopy layer. In addition to presenting a higher photosynthetic capacity, IACSP95-3028 also received more light in the lower canopy layer, supporting its higher biomass production compared with IACSP93-2060.
Abstract
Carbon allocation between source and sink organs determines plant growth and is influenced by environmental conditions. Under water deficit (WD), plant growth is inhibited before ...photosynthesis and shoot growth tends to be more sensitive than root growth. However, the modulation of the source–sink relationship by rootstocks remains unsolved in citrus trees under WD. Citrus plants grafted on Rangpur lime are drought tolerant, which may be related to a fine coordination of the source–sink relationship for maintaining root growth. Here, we followed 13C allocation and evaluated physiological responses and growth of Valencia orange trees grafted on three citrus rootstocks (Rangpur lime, Swingle citrumelo and Sunki mandarin) under WD. As compared with plants on Swingle and Sunki rootstocks, ones grafted on Rangpur lime showed higher stomatal sensitivity to the initial variation of water availability and less accumulation of non-structural carbohydrates in roots under WD. High 13C allocation found in Rangpur lime roots indicates this rootstock has high sink demand associated with high root growth under WD. Our data suggest that Rangpur lime rootstock used photoassimilates as sources of energy and carbon skeletons for growing under drought, which is likely related to increases in root respiration. Taken together, our data revealed that carbon supply by leaves and delivery to roots are critical for maintaining root growth and improving drought tolerance, with citrus rootstocks showing differential sink strength under WD.
Downy mildew caused by
is one of the most destructive diseases of
worldwide. Grapevine breeding programs have introgressed
-resistant traits into cultivated
genotypes and launched interspecific ...hybrids with resistance against downy mildew. In general, pathogen infection affects primary metabolism, reduces plant growth and development and modifies the secondary metabolism toward defense responses, which are costly in terms of carbon production and utilization. The objective of this work was to evaluate the photosynthesis impairment by inducible defenses at the leaf level in
cultivars resistant to
. Photosynthetic limitations imposed by
in susceptible and resistant grapevine cultivars were evaluated. Histochemical localization of hydrogen peroxide and superoxide and the activity of ascorbate peroxidase were assessed. Measurements of leaf gas exchange, chlorophyll fluorescence and the response of leaf CO
assimilation to increasing air CO
concentrations were taken, and photosynthetic limitations determined in cultivars Solaris (resistant) and Riesling (susceptible). The net photosynthetic rates were reduced (-25%) in inoculated Solaris plants even before the appearance of cell death-like hypersensitive reactions ("HR"). One day after "HR" visualization, the net photosynthetic rate of Solaris was reduced by 57% compared with healthy plants. A similar pattern was noticed in resistant Cabernet Blanc and Phoenix plants. While the susceptible cultivars did not show any variation in leaf gas exchange before the appearance of visual symptoms, drastic reductions in net photosynthetic rate and stomatal conductance were found in diseased plants 12 days after inoculation. Decreases in the maximum Rubisco carboxylation rate and photochemical impairment were noticed in Riesling after inoculation with
, which were not found in Solaris. Damage to the photochemical reactions of photosynthesis was likely associated with the oxidative burst found in resistant cultivars within the first 24 h after inoculation. Both chlorophyll degradation and stomatal closure were also noticed in the incompatible interaction. Taken together, our data clearly revealed that the defense response against
causes a photosynthetic cost to grapevines, which is not reversible even 12 days after the pathogen infection.
Sugarcane is a vital commodity crop often grown in (sub)tropical regions which have been experiencing a recent deterioration in air quality. Unlike for other commodity crops, the risk of air ...pollution, specifically ozone (O3), to this C4 crop has not yet been quantified. Yet, recent work has highlighted both the potential risks of O3 to C4 bioenergy crops, and the emergence of O3 exposure across the tropics as a vital factor determining global food security. Given the large extent, and planned expansion of sugarcane production in places like Brazil to meet global demand for biofuels, there is a pressing need to characterize the risk of O3 to the industry. In this study, we sought to a) derive sugarcane O3 dose-response functions across a range of realistic O3 exposure and b) model the implications of this across a globally important production area. We found a significant impact of O3 on biomass allocation (especially to leaves) and production across a range of sugarcane genotypes, including two commercially relevant varieties (e.g. CTC4, Q240). Using these data, we calculated dose-response functions for sugarcane and combined them with hourly O3 exposure across south-central Brazil derived from the UK Earth System Model (UKESM1) to simulate the current regional impact of O3 on sugarcane production using a dynamic global vegetation model (JULES vn 5.6). We found that between 5.6 % and 18.3 % of total crop productivity is likely lost across the region due to the direct impacts of current O3 exposure. However, impacts depended critically on the substantial differences in O3 susceptibility observed among sugarcane genotypes and how these were implemented in the model. Our work highlights not only the urgent need to fully elucidate the impacts of O3 in this important bioenergetic crop, but the potential implications air quality may have upon tropical food production more generally.
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•Sugarcane is a commodity crop grown across the (sub)tropics.•Ozone exposure causes a reduction in productivity of sugarcane.•Cultivars of sugarcane show different sensitivities to ozone.•Spatial modelling shows variation in the risks of O3 across south-central Brazil.•Ozone poses a substantial production risk for the world's largest regional producer.
The entrapment of NO donors in nanomaterials has emerged as a strategy to protect these molecules from rapid degradation, allowing a more controlled release of NO and prolonging its effect. On the ...other hand, we have found beneficial effects of S-nitrosoglutathione (GSNO) – a NO donor – supplying to sugarcane plants under water deficit. Here, we hypothesized that GSNO encapsulated into nanoparticles would be more effective in attenuating the effects of water deficit on sugarcane plants as compared to the supplying of GSNO in its free form. The synthesis and characterization of chitosan nanoparticles containing GSNO were also reported. Sugarcane plants were grown in nutrient solution, and then subjected to the following treatments: control (well-hydrated); water deficit (WD); WD + GSNO sprayed in its free form (WDG) or encapsulated (WDG-NP). In general, both GSNO forms attenuated the effects of water deficit on sugarcane plants. However, the encapsulation of this donor into chitosan nanoparticles caused higher photosynthetic rates under water deficit, as compared to plants supplied with free GSNO. The root/shoot ratio was also increased when encapsulated GSNO was supplied, indicating that delayed release of NO improves drought tolerance of sugarcane plants. Our results provide experimental evidence that nanotechnology can be used for enhancing NO-induced benefits for plants under stressful conditions, alleviating the negative impact of water deficit on plant metabolism and increasing biomass allocation to root system.
•GSNO was encapsulated into chitosan nanoparticles and sprayed on sugarcane plants.•Delayed release of NO improves drought tolerance of sugarcane plants.•GSNO encapsulation increased photosynthesis and root biomass under water deficit.•Nanotechnology can be used for enhancing NO-induced benefits under water deficit.
The classical method to estimate the light conversion efficiency (εc) gives a single value for the whole crop cycle (εco) but does not reveal any variation along the growing season. We proposed the ...segmented approach to uncover such variations along sugarcane (Saccharum sp. hybrid) growth cycle. Our analyses revealed that longer sampling intervals could overestimate εco and that the segmented light conversion efficiency (εcs) varied between 0.09 and 5.39 g MJ-1 during the crop cycle. The εcs would provide insights on how the environment affects εc and how to increase biomass production through crop management practices.
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