A major breakthrough in neuroscience has been the realization in the last decades that the dogmatic view of astroglial cells as being merely fostering and buffering elements of the nervous system is ...simplistic. A wealth of investigations now shows that astrocytes actually participate in the control of synaptic transmission in an active manner. This was first hinted by the intimate contacts glial processes make with neurons, particularly at the synaptic level, and evidenced using electrophysiological and calcium imaging techniques. Calcium imaging has provided critical evidence demonstrating that astrocytic regulation of synaptic efficacy is not a passive phenomenon. However, given that cellular activation is not only represented by calcium signaling, it is also crucial to assess concomitant mechanisms. We and others have used electrophysiological techniques to simultaneously record neuronal and astrocytic activity, thus enabling the study of multiple ionic currents and in depth investigation of neuro-glial dialogues. In the current review, we focus on the input such approach has provided in the understanding of astrocyte-neuron interactions underlying control of synaptic efficacy.
Neuroglial interactions are now recognized as essential to brain functions. Extensive research has sought to understand the modalities of such dialog by focusing on astrocytes, the most abundant ...glial cell type of the central nervous system. Neuron–astrocyte exchanges occur at multiple levels, at different cellular locations. With regard to information processing, regulations occurring around synapses are of particular interest as synaptic networks are thought to underlie higher brain functions. Astrocytes morphology is tremendously complex in that their processes exceedingly branch out to eventually form multitudinous fine leaflets. The latter extremities have been shown to surround many synapses, forming perisynaptic astrocytic processes, which although recognized as essential to synaptic functioning, are poorly defined elements due to their tiny size. The current review sums up the current knowledge on their molecular and structural properties as well as the functional characteristics making them good candidates for information processing units.
Glia plays an active role in neuronal functions and dysfunctions, some of which depend on the expression of astrocyte connexins, the gap junction channel and hemichannel proteins. Under ...neuroinflammation triggered by the endotoxin lipopolysacharide (LPS), microglia is primary stimulated and releases proinflammatory agents affecting astrocytes and neurons. Here, we investigate the effects of such microglial activation on astrocyte connexin‐based channel functions and their consequences on synaptic activity in an ex vivo model. We found that LPS induces astroglial hemichannel opening in acute hippocampal slices while no change is observed in gap junctional communication. Based on pharmacological and genetic approaches we found that the LPS‐induced hemichannel opening is mainly due to Cx43 hemichannel activity. This process primarily requires a microglial stimulation resulting in the release of at least two proinflammatory cytokines, IL‐1β and TNF‐α. Consequences of the hemichannel‐mediated increase in membrane permeability are a calcium rise in astrocytes and an enhanced glutamate release associated to a reduction in excitatory synaptic activity of pyramidal neurons in response to Schaffer's collateral stimulation. As a whole our findings point out astroglial hemichannels as key determinants of the impairment of synaptic transmission during neuroinflammation. GLIA 2015;63:795–811
Main Points
LPS induces astroglial hemichannel opening in hippocampal slices. This process requires a microglial activation resulting in the production of pro‐inflammatory cytokines that trigger a glutamate release from astrocytes associated to a reduction in excitatory synaptic activity of neurons.
Oxytocin (OT) orchestrates social and emotional behaviors through modulation of neural circuits. In the central amygdala, the release of OT modulates inhibitory circuits and, thereby, suppresses fear ...responses and decreases anxiety levels. Using astrocyte-specific gain and loss of function and pharmacological approaches, we demonstrate that a morphologically distinct subpopulation of astrocytes expresses OT receptors and mediates anxiolytic and positive reinforcement effects of OT in the central amygdala of mice and rats. The involvement of astrocytes in OT signaling challenges the long-held dogma that OT acts exclusively on neurons and highlights astrocytes as essential components for modulation of emotional states under normal and chronic pain conditions.
Astrocytes interact with neurons to regulate network activity. Although the gap junction subunits connexin 30 and connexin 43 mediate the formation of extensive astroglial networks that cover large ...functional neuronal territories, their role in neuronal synchronization remains unknown. Using connexin 30- and connexin 43-deficient mice, we showed that astroglial networks promoted sustained population bursts in hippocampal slices by setting the basal active state of neurons. Astroglial networks limited excessive neuronal depolarization induced by spontaneous synaptic activity, increased neuronal release probability, and favored the recruitment of neurons during bursting, thus promoting the coordinated activation of neuronal networks. In vivo, this sustained neuronal coordination translated into increased severity of acutely evoked epileptiform events and convulsive behavior. These results revealed that connexin-mediated astroglial networks synchronize bursting of neuronal assemblies, which can exacerbate pathological network activity and associated behavior. Our data thus provide molecular and biophysical evidence predicting selective astroglial gap junction inhibitors as anticonvulsive drugs.
Astrocytes dynamically interact with neurons to regulate synaptic transmission. Although the gap junction proteins connexin 30 (Cx30) and connexin 43 (Cx43) mediate the extensive network organization ...of astrocytes, their role in synaptic physiology is unknown. Here we show, by inactivating Cx30 and Cx43 genes, that astroglial networks tone down hippocampal synaptic transmission in CA1 pyramidal neurons. Gap junctional networking facilitates extracellular glutamate and potassium removal during synaptic activity through modulation of astroglial clearance rate and extracellular space volume. This regulation limits neuronal excitability, release probability, and insertion of postsynaptic AMPA receptors, silencing synapses. By controlling synaptic strength, connexins play an important role in synaptic plasticity. Altogether, these results establish connexins as critical proteins for extracellular homeostasis, important for the formation of functional synapses.
Neuronal excitability relies on inward sodium and outward potassium fluxes during action potentials. To prevent neuronal hyperexcitability, potassium ions have to be taken up quickly. However, the ...dynamics of the activity-dependent potassium fluxes and the molecular pathways underlying extracellular potassium homeostasis remain elusive. To decipher the specific and acute contribution of astroglial Kir4.1 channels in controlling potassium homeostasis and the moment to moment neurotransmission, we built a tri-compartment model accounting for potassium dynamics between neurons, astrocytes and the extracellular space. We here demonstrate that astroglial Kir4.1 channels are sufficient to account for the slow membrane depolarization of hippocampal astrocytes and crucially contribute to extracellular potassium clearance during basal and high activity. By quantifying the dynamics of potassium levels in neuron-glia-extracellular space compartments, we show that astrocytes buffer within 6 to 9 seconds more than 80% of the potassium released by neurons in response to basal, repetitive and tetanic stimulations. Astroglial Kir4.1 channels directly lead to recovery of basal extracellular potassium levels and neuronal excitability, especially during repetitive stimulation, thereby preventing the generation of epileptiform activity. Remarkably, we also show that Kir4.1 channels strongly regulate neuronal excitability for slow 3 to 10 Hz rhythmic activity resulting from probabilistic firing activity induced by sub-firing stimulation coupled to Brownian noise. Altogether, these data suggest that astroglial Kir4.1 channels are crucially involved in extracellular potassium homeostasis regulating theta rhythmic activity.
Astrocytes play important roles in brain function via dynamic structural and functional interactions with neurons. Yet the underlying mechanisms remain poorly defined. A typical feature of astrocytes ...is the high expression of connexins, which mediate their extensive intercellular communication and regulate their structural properties. In particular, connexin 30 (Cx30), one of the two connexins abundantly expressed by astrocytes, was recently shown to be a critical regulator of excitatory synaptic transmission by controlling the astroglial coverage of synapses. However, the role of Cx30 in the regulation of inhibitory synaptic transmission and excitatory/inhibitory balance remains elusive. Here, we investigated the role of astroglial Cx30 on the electrophysiological and morphological properties of five classes of hippocampal CA1 stratum oriens and pyramidale neurons, defined by the unsupervised Ward's clustering. Using Cx30 knockout mice, we found that Cx30 alters specific properties of some subsets of CA1 interneurons, such as resting membrane potential and sag ratio, while other parameters, such as action potential threshold and saturation frequency, were more frequently altered among the different classes of neurons. The excitation‐inhibition balance was also differentially and selectively modulated among the different neuron subtypes. Only slight morphological differences were observed on reconstructed neurons. Altogether, these data indicate that Cx30 differentially alters the electrophysiological and morphological properties of hippocampal cell populations, and modulates both their excitatory and inhibitory inputs. Astrocytes, via Cx30, are thus active modulators of both excitatory and inhibitory synapses in the hippocampus.
Main Points
Astroglial Cx30 alters the electrophysiological properties of hippocampal neuronal populations.
The excitation‐inhibition balance from hippocampal neuronal subtypes is distinctively regulated by astroglial Cx30.
Synaptic transmission relies on several processes, such as the location of a released vesicle, the number and type of receptors, trafficking between the postsynaptic density (PSD) and extrasynaptic ...compartment, as well as the synapse organization. To study the impact of these parameters on excitatory synaptic transmission, we present a computational model for the fast AMPA-receptor mediated synaptic current. We show that in addition to the vesicular release probability, due to variations in their release locations and the AMPAR distribution, the postsynaptic current amplitude has a large variance, making a synapse an intrinsic unreliable device. We use our model to examine our experimental data recorded from CA1 mice hippocampal slices to study the differences between mEPSC and evoked EPSC variance. The synaptic current but not the coefficient of variation is maximal when the active zone where vesicles are released is apposed to the PSD. Moreover, we find that for certain type of synapses, receptor trafficking can affect the magnitude of synaptic depression. Finally, we demonstrate that perisynaptic microdomains located outside the PSD impacts synaptic transmission by regulating the number of desensitized receptors and their trafficking to the PSD. We conclude that geometrical modifications, reorganization of the PSD or perisynaptic microdomains modulate synaptic strength, as the mechanisms underlying long-term plasticity.
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