Flavonoids are polyphenolic compounds and color most flowers, fruits and seeds. The regulation of flavonoid biosynthetic genes is directed by ternary complexes composed of MYB-bHLH-WD40 transcription ...factors. DNA-binding bHLH proteins are widely distributed in higher plants and comprise the second largest transcription factor family. The regulation of flavonoid synthesis by bHLH has been extensively studied in vascular plants, most functionally characterized in
Arabidopsis
. Sorghum is one of the most economically important crops worldwide. Despite 169 bHLH genes were identified in this cereal, few studies have reported their roles in seed coat pigmentation. Here we identified and characterized
Sb
TT8, a sorghum bHLH-domain protein, through molecular modeling and complementation studies in
Arabidopsis tt8
mutant.
Sb
TT8 partially rescues the brown seed color and dormancy in
Arabidopsis tt8
mutants. We show that
Sb
TT8 is significantly larger than
At
TT8 and holds a Lys467 residue where
At
TT8 has an Ala367, within the DNA-recognition motif conserved throughout the bHLH family. This change likely affects how
Sb
TT8 interacts with the target DNA, as compared with
At
TT8. Our results shed light on the different phenotypes witnessed for
A. thaliana
transgenic lines expressing
Sb
TT8 from sorghum, as well as the regulation of genes encoding enzymes for flavonoid biosynthesis.
We report the detection of strong absorption by interstellar hydrogen fluoride along the sight-line to the submillimeter continuum source G10.6–0.4 (W31C). We have used Herschel's HIFI instrument, in ...dual beam switch mode, to observe the 1232.4763 GHz J = 1–0 HF transition in the upper sideband of the Band 5a receiver. The resultant spectrum shows weak HF emission from G10.6–0.4 at LSR velocities in the range –10 to –3 km s-1, accompanied by strong absorption by foreground material at LSR velocities in the range 15 to 50 km s-1. The spectrum is similar to that of the 1113.3430 GHz 111–000 transition of para-water, although at some frequencies the HF (hydrogen fluoride) optical depth clearly exceeds that of para-H2O. The optically-thick HF absorption that we have observed places a conservative lower limit of 1.6×1014 cm-2 on the HF column density along the sight-line to G10.6–0.4. Our lower limit on the HF abundance, 6×10-9 relative to hydrogen nuclei, implies that hydrogen fluoride accounts for between ~30% and 100% of the fluorine nuclei in the gas phase along this sight-line. This observation corroborates theoretical predictions that – because the unique thermochemistry of fluorine permits the exothermic reaction of F atoms with molecular hydrogen – HF will be the dominant reservoir of interstellar fluorine under a wide range of conditions.
We report the first detection of the ground-state rotational transition of the methylidyne cation CH+ towards the massive star-forming region DR 21 with the HIFI instrument onboard the Herschel ...satellite. The line profile exhibits a broad emission line, in addition to two deep and broad absorption features associated with the DR 21 molecular ridge and foreground gas. These observations allow us to determine a 12CH+J = 1–0 line frequency of ν = 835 137 ± 3 MHz, in good agreement with a recent experimental determination. We estimate the CH+ column density to be a few 1013 cm-2 in the gas seen in emission, and >1014 cm-2 in the components responsible for the absorption, which is indicative of a high line of sight average abundance CH+ /H > 1.2 × 10-8. We show that the CH+ column densities agree well with the predictions of state-of-the-art C-shock models in dense UV-illuminated gas for the emission line, and with those of turbulent dissipation models in diffuse gas for the absorption lines.
Nitrogen is the fifth most abundant element in the Universe, yet the gas-phase chemistry of N-bearing species remains poorly understood. Nitrogen hydrides are key molecules of nitrogen chemistry. ...Their abundance ratios place strong constraints on the production pathways and reaction rates of nitrogen-bearing molecules. We observed the class 0 protostar IRAS 16293-2422 with the heterodyne instrument HIFI, covering most of the frequency range from 0.48 to 1.78 THz at high spectral resolution. The hyperfine structure of the amidogen radical o-NH2 is resolved and seen in absorption against the continuum of the protostar. Several transitions of ammonia from 1.2 to 1.8 THz are also seen in absorption. These lines trace the low-density envelope of the protostar. Column densities and abundances are estimated for each hydride. We find that NH:NH2:NH3 ≈ 5:1:300. Dark clouds chemical models predict steady-state abundances of NH2 and NH3 in reasonable agreement with the present observations, whilst that of NH is underpredicted by more than one order of magnitude, even using updated kinetic rates. Additional modelling of the nitrogen gas-phase chemistry in dark-cloud conditions is necessary before having recourse to heterogen processes.
We present the first detection of hydrogen chloride in a protostellar shock by observing the fundamental transition at 626 GHz with the HIFI spectrometer. We detected two of the three hyperfine lines ...from which we derived a line opacity < or = 1. Using a non-local thermodynamic equilibrium large velocity gradient code, we constrained the HCl column density, temperature, and density of the emitting gas. The hypothesis that the emission originates in the molecular cloud is ruled out because it would imply a very dense gas. Conversely, assuming that the emission originates in the 10"-15" size shocked gas previously observed at the IRAM Plateau de Bure Interferometer, we obtain N(HCl) = 0.7-2 x 10 super(13) cm super(-2), temperature >15 K, and density >3 x 10 super(5) cm super(-3). Combining these with the Herschel HIFI CO(5-4) observations allows us to further constrain the gas density and temperature, 10 super(5)-10 super(6) cm super(-3) and 120-250 K, respectively, as well as the HCl column density, 2 x 10 super(13) cm super(-2), and, finally, the abundance ~3-6 x 10 super(-9). The estimated HCl abundance is consistent with that previously observed in low- and high-mass protostars. This puzzling result in the L1157-B1 shock, where species from volatile and refractory grain components are enhanced, suggests either that HCl is not the main reservoir of chlorine in the gas phase, which goes against previous chemical model predictions, or that the elemental chlorine abundance is low in L1157-B1. Astrochemical modeling suggests that HCl is in fact formed in the gas phase at low temperatures prior to the occurrence of the shock; the latter does not enhance its abundance.
We report the detection of more than 48 velocity-resolved ground rotational state transitions of H216O, H218O, and H217O – most for the first time – in both emission and absorption toward Orion KL ...using Herschel/HIFI. We show that a simple fit, constrained to match the known emission and absorption components along the line of sight, is in excellent agreement with the spectral profiles of all the water lines. Using the measured H218O line fluxes, which are less affected by line opacity than their H216O counterparts, and an escape probability method, the column densities of H218O associated with each emission component are derived. We infer total water abundances of 7.4 × 10-5, 1.0 × 10-5, and 1.6 × 10-5 for the plateau, hot core, and extended warm gas, respectively. In the case of the plateau, this value is consistent with previous measures of the Orion-KL water abundance as well as those of other molecular outflows. In the case of the hot core and extended warm gas, these values are somewhat higher than water abundances derived for other quiescent clouds, suggesting that these regions are likely experiencing enhanced water-ice sublimation from (and reduced freeze-out onto) grain surfaces due to the warmer dust in these sources.
Using Herschel's HIFI instrument, we observe C ii along a cut through S140, as well as high-J transitions of CO and HCO+ at two positions on the cut, corresponding to the externally irradiated ...ionization front and the embedded massive star-forming core IRS1. The HIFI data were combined with available ground-based observations and modeled using the KOSMA-τ model for photon-dominated regions (PDRs). We derive the physical conditions in S140 and in particular the origin of C ii emission around IRS1. We identify three distinct regions of C ii emission from the cut, one close to the embedded source IRS1, one associated with the ionization front, and one further into the cloud. The line emission can be understood in terms of a clumpy model of PDRs. At the position of IRS1, we identify at least two distinct components contributing to the C ii emission, one of them a small, hot component, which can possibly be identified with the irradiated outflow walls. This is consistent with the C ii peak at IRS1 coinciding with shocked H2 emission at the edges of the outflow cavity. We note that previously available observations of IRS1 can be reproduced well by a single-component KOSMA-τ model. Thus, it is HIFI's unprecedented spatial and spectral resolution, as well as its sensitivity that has allowed us to uncover an additional hot gas component in the S140 region.
We present the first results of the unbiased survey of the L1157-B1 bow shock, obtained with HIFI in the framework of the key program Chemical HErschel Survey of Star forming regions (CHESS). The ...L1157 outflow is driven by a low-mass Class 0 protostar and is considered the prototype of the so-called chemically active outflows. The bright blue-shifted bow shock B1 is the ideal laboratory for studying the link between the hot (~1000-2000 K) component traced by H2 IR-emission and the cold (~10-20 K) swept-up material. The main aim is to trace the warm gas chemically enriched by the passage of a shock and to infer the excitation conditions in L1157-B1. A total of 27 lines are identified in the 555-636 GHz region, down to an average 3σ level of 30 mK. The emission is dominated by CO(5-4) and H2O(110-101) transitions, as discussed by Lefloch et al. in this volume. Here we report on the identification of lines from NH3, H2CO, CH3OH, CS, HCN, and HCO+. The comparison between the profiles produced by molecules released from dust mantles (NH3, H2CO, CH3OH) and that of H2O is consistent with a scenario in which water is also formed in the gas-phase in high-temperature regions where sputtering or grain-grain collisions are not efficient. The high excitation range of the observed tracers allows us to infer, for the first time for these species, the existence of a warm (≥200 K) gas component coexisting in the B1 bow structure with the cold and hot gas detected from ground. Herschel is an ESA space observatory with science instruments provided by European-led principal Investigator consortia and with important participation from NASA.Table 1 is only available in electronic form at http://www.aanda.org
We report the detection of absorption by interstellar hydroxyl cations and water cations, along the sight-line to the bright continuum source W49N. We have used Herschel's HIFI instrument, in dual ...beam switch mode, to observe the 972 GHz N = 1–0 transition of OH+ and the 1115 GHz 111–000 transition of ortho-H2O+. The resultant spectra show absorption by ortho-H2O+, and strong absorption by OH+, in foreground material at velocities in the range 0 to 70 km s-1 with respect to the local standard of rest. The inferred OH+/H2O+ abundance ratio ranges from ~3 to ~15, implying that the observed OH+ arises in clouds of small molecular fraction, in the 2–8% range. This conclusion is confirmed by the distribution of OH+ and H2O+ in Doppler velocity space, which is similar to that of atomic hydrogen, as observed by means of 21 cm absorption measurements, and dissimilar from that typical of other molecular tracers. The observed OH+/H abundance ratio of a few ×10-8 suggests a cosmic ray ionization rate for atomic hydrogen of 0.6–2.4×10-16 s-1, in good agreement with estimates inferred previously for diffuse clouds in the Galactic disk from observations of interstellar H3+ and other species.
We present initial results from the Herschel GT key program: Herschel observations of EXtra-Ordinary Sources (HEXOS) and outline the promise and potential of spectral surveys with Herschel/HIFI. The ...HIFI instrument offers unprecedented sensitivity, as well as continuous spectral coverage across the gaps imposed by the atmosphere, opening up a largely unexplored wavelength regime to high-resolution spectroscopy. We show the spectrum of Orion KL between 480 and 560 GHz and from 1.06 to 1.115 THz. From these data, we confirm that HIFI separately measures the dust continuum and spectrally resolves emission lines in Orion KL. Based on this capability we demonstrate that the line contribution to the broad-band continuum in this molecule-rich source is ~20–40% below 1 THz and declines to a few percent at higher frequencies. We also tentatively identify multiple transitions of HD18O in the spectra. The first detection of this rare isotopologue in the interstellar medium suggests that HDO emission is optically thick in the Orion hot core with HDO/H2O ~ 0.02. We discuss the implications of this detection for the water D/H ratio in hot cores.
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