Intra- and inter-specific gene flow are natural evolutionary processes. However, human-induced hybridization is a global conservation concern across taxa, and the development of discriminant genetic ...markers to differentiate among gene flow processes is essential. Wolves (Canis lupus) are affected by hybridization, particularly in southern Europe, where ongoing recolonization of historic ranges is augmenting gene flow among divergent populations. Our aim was to provide diagnostic canid markers focused on the long-divergent Iberian, Italian and Dinaric wolf populations, based on existing genomic resources. We used 158 canid samples to select a panel of highly informative single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) to (i) distinguish wolves in the three regions from domestic dogs (C. l. familiaris) and golden jackals (C. aureus), and (ii) identify their first two hybrid generations. The resulting 192 SNPs correctly identified the five canid groups, all simulated first-generation (F1) hybrids (0.482 ≤ Q
≤ 0.512 between their respective parental groups) and all first backcross (BC1) individuals (0.723 ≤ Q
≤ 0.827 to parental groups). An assay design and test with invasive and non-invasive canid samples performed successfully for 178 SNPs. By separating natural population admixture from inter-specific hybridization, our reduced panel can help advance evolutionary research, monitoring, and timely conservation management.
Abstract
Integrating data across studies with traditional microsatellite genetic markers requires careful calibration and represents an obstacle for investigation of wide-ranging species where ...populations require transboundary management. We used the “yardstick” method to compare results published across Europe since 2002 and new wolf (
Canis lupus
) genetic profiles from the Carpathian Mountains in Central Europe and the Dinaric Mountains in Southeastern Europe, with the latter as our reference population. We compared each population with Dinaric wolves, considering only shared markers (range 4–17). For each population, we calculated standard genetic diversity indices plus calibrated heterozygosity (
Hec
) and allelic richness (
Ac
).
Hec
and
Ac
in Dinaric (0.704 and 9.394) and Carpathian wolves (0.695 and 7.023) were comparable to those observed in other large and mid-sized European populations, but smaller than those of northeastern Europe. Major discrepancies in marker choices among some studies made comparisons more difficult. However, the yardstick method, including the new measures of
Hec
and
Ac
, provided a direct comparison of genetic diversity values among wolf populations and an intuitive interpretation of the results. The yardstick method thus permitted the integration of diverse sources of publicly available microsatellite data for spatiotemporal genetic monitoring of evolutionary potential.
ABSTRACT
The grey wolf (Canis lupus) is an iconic large carnivore that has increasingly been recognized as an apex predator with intrinsic value and a keystone species. However, wolves have also long ...represented a primary source of human–carnivore conflict, which has led to long‐term persecution of wolves, resulting in a significant decrease in their numbers, genetic diversity and gene flow between populations. For more effective protection and management of wolf populations in Europe, robust scientific evidence is crucial. This review serves as an analytical summary of the main findings from wolf population genetic studies in Europe, covering major studies from the ‘pre‐genomic era’ and the first insights of the ‘genomics era’. We analyse, summarize and discuss findings derived from analyses of three compartments of the mammalian genome with different inheritance modes: maternal (mitochondrial DNA), paternal (Y chromosome) and biparental autosomal microsatellites and single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs). To describe large‐scale trends and patterns of genetic variation in European wolf populations, we conducted a meta‐analysis based on the results of previous microsatellite studies and also included new data, covering all 19 European countries for which wolf genetic information is available: Norway, Sweden, Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Czech Republic, Slovakia, Germany, Belarus, Russia, Italy, Croatia, Bulgaria, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Greece, Spain and Portugal. We compared different indices of genetic diversity in wolf populations and found a significant spatial trend in heterozygosity across Europe from south‐west (lowest genetic diversity) to north‐east (highest). The range of spatial autocorrelation calculated on the basis of three characteristics of genetic diversity was 650−850 km, suggesting that the genetic diversity of a given wolf population can be influenced by populations up to 850 km away. As an important outcome of this synthesis, we discuss the most pressing issues threatening wolf populations in Europe, highlight important gaps in current knowledge, suggest solutions to overcome these limitations, and provide recommendations for science‐based wolf conservation and management at regional and Europe‐wide scales.
Recent technological developments in non-invasive methods facilitate study of the behaviour of elusive predators. We used two types of automatic digital video surveillance systems in combination with ...GPS telemetry to record feeding behaviour of wild Eurasian lynx (Lynx lynx), intraspecific prey sharing and scavenger activity at ungulate kill sites in the Dinaric Mountains. This approach proved an effective and mostly non-invasive way to obtain detailed data on the consumption of prey by lynx and kleptoparasites, especially when the advanced video system was used. Lynx spent a considerable amount of time in the vicinity of the kill site, but usually visited the carcass for feeding only once per night with a mean visit time of 35 min and most of the feeding occurred during the first half of the night. Lynx covered 83 % of prey remains, which seemed to be effective against avian scavengers that only found 17 % of the carcasses. We recorded six vertebrate species scavenging on lynx kills, with red fox (Vulpes vulpes) and brown bear (Ursus arctos) being the most frequent kleptoparasites. Based on our results, we provide recommendations for future research using this method, as well as outlining the pros and cons of advanced vs. simple video systems.
Analysis of global positioning system (GPS) location clusters (GLCs) is becoming increasingly popular in studies of carnivore ecology. While promising, this application of GPS technology is still ...poorly developed for most species. We applied this method to study predation and maternal behavior of the Eurasian lynx (
Lynx lynx
) in the Dinaric Mountains. Low population densities, rugged terrain, dense vegetation, and administrative borders make studies of this endangered population using traditional methods and a limited budget very challenging. We used the geographic information system and linear mixed-effects models to understand the movement of lynx during the consumption process and denning period and estimate lynx kill rates. A total of 99 % of kills were found at GLCs longer than 30 h and with minimum two locations within 300 m. We confirmed 86 % of potential kills and all potential dens that were searched for in the field. High success in predicting kill and den sites showed that the Eurasian lynx is a suitable species for application of the GLC analysis methods. Comparison of field-confirmed kills with model predictions showed the possibility for remote estimation of approximate kill rates in Eurasian lynx. Movements of the lynx were primarily affected by daytime period, time since the last kill/den translocation, lynx category, and their interactions. Based on the empirical data, we programmed simulations of lynx movements and elaborated recommendations for more efficient field procedures and study designs (GPS schedules) for future studies. We believe that our findings and approach will also benefit studies of other species with similar behavior.
The survival of isolated small populations is threatened by both demographic and genetic factors. Large carnivores declined for centuries in most of Europe due to habitat changes, overhunting of ...their natural prey and direct persecution. However, the current rewilding trends are driving many carnivore populations to expand again, possibly reverting the erosion of their genetic diversity. In this study we reassessed the extent and origin of the genetic variation of the Italian wolf population, which is expanding after centuries of decline and isolation. We genotyped wolves from Italy and other nine populations at four mtDNA regions (control-region, ATP6, COIII and ND4) and 39 autosomal microsatellites. Results of phylogenetic analyses and assignment procedures confirmed in the Italian wolves a second private mtDNA haplotype, which belongs to a haplogroup distributed mostly in southern Europe. Coalescent analyses showed that the unique mtDNA haplotypes in the Italian wolves likely originated during the late Pleistocene. ABC simulations concordantly showed that the extant wolf populations in Italy and in south-western Europe started to be isolated and declined right after the last glacial maximum. Thus, the standing genetic variation in the Italian wolves principally results from the historical isolation south of the Alps.
Abstract Large carnivores such as wolves ( Canis lupus ) at times disperse distances of several hundred kilometers, which may enable gene flow over vast distances. Such long‐distance dispersal ...events, however, often remain undetected, and documenting long‐distance dispersers and their movements typically depend on strong transboundary collaborations. Here, we report the dispersal of a wolf (MSV0FF) from the Alpine region of northern Slovenia to Bavaria in southern Germany, a straight‐line distance of around 300 km. The disperser originated in a pack with a genetically diverse breeding pair, where the father exhibited ancestry from the Dinaric and Italian Alpine populations. Genetic analysis of the mother indicated that she was an immigrant from a divergent population further south in the Dinaric‐Balkan region. Such a varied ancestry augments the probability of immigrants being genetically misclassified as wolf‐dog hybrids in their area of arrival, which increases the risk of unfavorable management decisions toward individuals that would be genetically highly valuable for the recipient population. Wolf MSV0FF therefore demonstrates the benefits of international collaborative monitoring networks and the value of sharing samples and analytical approaches for the monitoring of wide‐ranging species.
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