The phosphotransferase system (PTS) plays a pivotal role in the uptake of multiple sugars in Escherichia coli and many other bacteria. In the cell, individual sugar-specific PTS branches are ...interconnected through a series of phosphotransfer reactions, thus creating a global network that not only phosphorylates incoming sugars but also regulates a number of cellular processes. Despite the apparent importance of the PTS network in bacterial physiology, the holistic function of the network in the cell remains unclear. Here we used Förster resonance energy transfer (FRET) to investigate the PTS network in E. coli, including the dynamics of protein interactions and the processing of different stimuli and their transmission to the chemotaxis pathway. Our results demonstrate that despite the seeming complexity of the cellular PTS network, its core part operates in a strikingly simple way, sensing the overall influx of PTS sugars irrespective of the sugar identity and distributing this information equally through all studied branches of the network. Moreover, it also integrates several other specific metabolic inputs. The integrated output of the PTS network is then transmitted linearly to the chemotaxis pathway, in stark contrast to the amplification of conventional chemotactic stimuli. Finally, we observe that default uptake through the uninduced PTS network correlates well with the quality of the carbon source, apparently representing an optimal regulatory strategy.
Bacterial survival is fraught with antagonism, including that deriving from viruses and competing bacterial cells. It is now appreciated that bacteria mount complex antiviral responses; however, ...whether a coordinated defense against bacterial threats is undertaken is not well understood. Previously, we showed that
possess a danger-sensing pathway that is a critical fitness determinant during competition against other bacteria. Here, we conducted genome-wide screens in
that reveal three conserved and widespread interbacterial antagonism resistance clusters (
). We find that although
are coordinately activated by the Gac/Rsm danger-sensing system, they function independently and provide idiosyncratic defense capabilities, distinguishing them from general stress response pathways. Our findings demonstrate that Arc3 family proteins provide specific protection against phospholipase toxins by preventing the accumulation of lysophospholipids in a manner distinct from previously characterized membrane repair systems. These findings liken the response of
to bacterial threats to that of eukaryotic innate immunity, wherein threat detection leads to the activation of specialized defense systems.
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