Economic analysis of even-aged fir stand management was illustrated using the example of the forests of the Croatian Dinaric region, as well as their transformation into more stable unevenaged ...structures. Two scenarios (even-aged, uneven-aged) were simulated against the backdrop of the existing forest stand structure of future forest stand management during a 140-year period using forest growth modeling software MOSES version 3.0 in order to identify economic differences amongst different scenarios both at stand level and at forest level. The research included forest management analysis throughout the transformation period and subsequently the continuation of balanced state forest management. Moreover, the research also provided the opportunity of forest purchase within the price range from 1000 to 12,500 EUR/ha, amid assumed fluctuation of selling prices of timber assortments throughout the simulation period. Discount rates from 1% to 5% were used during the economic analysis. The research findings showed that, according to harvesting costs, Net Present Value and Internal Rate of Return, uneven-aged forest management system, including the transformation period, achieved superior economic results, albeit at discount rates that exceeded 1.24%. The conclusion was reached that, according to all economic criteria, uneven-aged mixed silver fir-beech management system is preferred compared with the pure even-aged silver fir management. Keywords: silver fir, management transformation, cost control, NPV, IRR
•Psychological landownership (PL) has been neglected in landscape research.•Forest owners’ motives for PL are having a place to dwell and building self-identity.•Management duration and work with ...young forest stands strengthen PL.•Regional variations and concentrations of PL indicate hotspots/coldspots.•PL is a strong barrier to land degradation but it also hinders timely inheritance.
Legal ownership of land defines the formal relationship between a landowner and land. Besides legal ownership, there is also psychological ownership which landowners can develop toward land. Despite the abundant literature on the relationships between landowners and land, it remains unclear under which circumstances a sense of ownership over land occurs and what impacts individual feelings may have on landscape dynamics if aggregated or scaled up. Building upon the psychological ownership theory, we interviewed 442 private forest owners in Croatia about the benefits of landownership. By using a Multiple Indicators Multiple Causes (MIMIC) structural equation model and local spatial autocorrelation statistics, we 1) analyzed whether landownership benefits correlate to three motives for psychological ownership, i.e. having a place, efficacy and effectance, and self-identity; 2) analyzed the factors stimulating the motives; and 3) located the areas of spatial concentration of psychological landownership (i.e. hotspots/coldspots). Landownership benefits showed a strong association with the corresponding motives indicating that private forest owners experience landownership as a connection between the self and forest. Physical work in the forest and tending young forests increase psychological landownership. The land tenure system and duration of ownership plays no role. The biggest hotspot appeared in the most developed area, possibly preventing land transfer. Coldspots, in contrast, emerged across the country, pointing to land which could potentially change ownership after the land market regulation expires in 2023. The findings expand the understanding of land possession beyond the dis(investment) paradigm and help predict hotspots of land transfers at local to regional scales.
Background and Purpose: The aim of this article is to create a virtual forest stand based on the field measurement of spatially separated sample plots and to examine its credibility based on the ...deviation of the basic characteristics of the virtual stand as compared to the field measurements.
Material and Methods: Field measurements were made on 20 circular sample plots with a 20 m radius, set on a 100x100 m grid. By using the univariate Ripley’s K function the regularity of the spatial pattern of trees was analysed. The diameter distribution and the frequencies of height within individual diameter class were mathematically fitted and used for generating the virtual stand. The whole process of generating the virtual stand was done in the R software. Area of study are even-aged silver fir stands in the Croatian Dinarides.
Results: The main unit of the virtual stand is a tree, with the purpose that the virtual stand can then be used as a basis for forest stand growth simulators. The result of the research was a virtual stand of 3 ha whose characteristics only slightly differed from the field measured plots. Within the virtual stand, special emphasis has been put on tree heights, which were generated according to the variability of tree height for trees of the same diameter at breast height.
Conclusions: Considering the distribution of diameters at breast height, tree heights, the number of trees, basal area and volume, the virtual stand has minimal deviations from the situation in the field and it adequately shows variability measured in the field.
Background and Purpose: Beech-fir forests cover about 13% of forest land in Croatia, thus being a significant forest resource that is dominantly managed by uneven-aged selection management system. ...Continuous and successful regeneration is an essential prerequisite for this kind of forest management. Therefore updated and sound information on the present state of regeneration is important, especially in the context of climate change and the actual structure of beech and fir forests. The aim of this paper is to present and analyse current state of regeneration in beech and silver fir forests of Gorski kotar region, with regard to forest ownership (management model), forest communities and habitat characteristics.
Materials and Methods: Field measurement has been done on 313 plots in the beech and fir forests of Gorski kotar region, Croatia. The assessment of regeneration was based on measurement of trees ranging from 0 to 10 cm dbh (species, number of trees, average height) and also the estimation of seedlings up to 1.30 m high (regenerated area in 10% classes, the share of tree species, the origin of stand establishment, regeneration quality).
Results: Attributes like the success of regeneration, the structure of seedlings by species and the recruitment of saplings were analysed with regards to ownership, forest communities and the aim of forest management. The results indicate poor incidence of regeneration especially of silver fir (more than 50% percent of field plots with no regeneration). Silver fir saplings (height>1.3 m, dbh ≤10 cm) are registered on 9% of plots, average number being only 165 per ha (all species together 2044 per ha). The estimated average share of the regenerated area is 16.3% of total forest area, contributed by 5.2% of conifers and 3.8% silver fir. A total of 14 tree species were recorded on regenerated areas, clearly dominated by broadleaves, especially beech (over 50%).
Conclusions: Significant differences in regeneration attributes were proven by ANOVA between ownership categories, forest communities and habitat characteristics. In order to get better insight on the structure of regeneration, it is recommended to improve future assessment by establishing special sub-plots for measurement of seedlings by species.
Temelji moderne šumarske znanosti i struke u Hrvatskoj (preporodno razdoblje) postavljeni su tijekom 19. stoljeća. U relativno kratkom vremenu tijekom druge polovine 19. stoljeća osnovano je ...Hrvatsko-slavonsko šumarsko društvo (1846), pokrenut je Šumarski list (1877), osnovano Gospodarsko-šumarskog učilišta u Križevcima (1860), usvojen Zakon o šumama za cijelu Austro-Ugarsku Monarhiju (1852), proveden „Zakon o imovnih općina u hrvatskoj i slavonskoj vojnoj Krajini“ (1873) i započela je s radom Šumarska akademija na Sveučilištu u Zagrebu (1898). Razdoblje je obilježeno i pojavom većeg broja stručno obrazovanih šumarskih stručnjaka koji su višu i visoku šumarsku naobrazbu stjecali u šumarskim učilištima u Hrvatskoj (Križevci) ili drugim europskim centrima. Među njima posebno se ističe Antun (Ante) Tomić rođen 1803. godine u Vinkovcima čije je djelovanje obilježilo sve nabrojane događaje u 19. stoljeću, a važne za hrvatsko šumarstvo. Iako se o djelovanju Antuna Tomića već pisalo i ranije (npr. Nenadić, Kerstenčanek, Piškorić i drugi) 220 godišnjica njegova rođenja dobar je povod za osvježiti sjećanje na Tomićev doprinos šumarskoj struci i hrvatskoj domovini. Prema tome cilj u ovom radu je prikazati Tomićevo djelovanje u kontekstu suvremenih izazova šumarske znanosti i struke. Antun Tomić završio je trogodišnje obrazovanje u Mariabrunnskom (Beč) šumarskom učilištu te je nakon vježbeništva obavljao odgovorne funkcije carsko-kraljevskog nadšumara u nizu pukovnija Vojne krajine. Paralelno se bavio znanstvenim radom te je iznio niz promišljanja o normalnoj drvnoj zalihi, razvoju šuma, modela uređivanja šuma i osiguranju potrajnosti šuma. Autor je organizacijskih reformi u šumarstvu Vojne krajine („Naputku za izlučenje imovno-obćinskih šuma u Krajini“ iz 1871. godine), osnivač i prvi predsjednik Hrvatskog šumarskog društva te vrstan šumarski stručnjak i znanstvenik koji svoje opsežno radno iskustvo pretače u primjenjive znanstvene radove iz gotovo svih područja šumarstva. Poveznica u svim radovima je očuvanje šuma te uspostava normaliteta i kroz normalitet potrajnost gospodarenja. Pri tome istančan Tomićev osjećaj za prirodnost očituje se u traženju preciznije prostorne stratifikacije šuma, preciznijeg utvrđivanja prirasta šume, fleksibilnijeg definiranja etata, većeg ulaganja u zaštitu i njegu šuma (posebno na narušenom (npr. krškom) staništu, a sve u cilju osiguranja potrajnosti gospodarenja šumama. Tomić sve nabrojane postavke uokviruje u svoju racionalnu metodu uređivanja šuma, tada vrlo naprednu kombiniranu metodu koja uvažava stvarno stanje i mogućnosti šuma. Pogledi Antuna Tomića na šumarstvo u temeljima su suvremene hrvatske šumarske struke, a težnja za uspostavom prostorno-vremenskog i strukturnog normaliteta šuma, time i potrajnost gospodarenja njima, trajan su izazov i cilj.
The foundations of modern forest science and practice in Croatia (revival period) were laid during the 19th century. In a relatively short time during the second half of the 19th century, the Croatian-Slavonic Forestry Society was founded (1846), the Forestry Journal was launched (1877), the Economic Forestry School in Križevci was established (1860), the Forestry Act was adopted for the whole Austro- Hungarian Monarchy (1852), the "Act on Property Municipalities in the Croatian and Slavonic Military Krajina" was implemented (1873) and the work of the Forestry Academy at the University of Zagreb began (1898). The period was also marked by the appearance of many professionally educated forestry experts who received higher education in forestry schools in Croatia (Križevci) or other European centres. Among others, Antun (Ante) Tomić, born in 1803 in Vinkovci, played an outstanding role. His activities marked all the listed events, important for Croatian forestry in the 19th century. Although about Ante Tomić's work it has been written before (e.g. Nenadić, Kerstenčanek, Piškorić and others), the 220th anniversary of his birth is a good incentive to refresh the memory of Tomić's contribution to the forestry profession and to the Croatian homeland. Accordingly, the aim of this paper is to present Tomić's activities in the context of contemporary challenges of forestry science and profession. Antun Tomić completed a three-year education at the Mariabrunn (Vienna) Forestry College in 1824, and after his internship, he held the responsible functions as the Imperial-Royal Chief Forester in a number of regiments of the Military Frontier. At the same time, he engaged in scientific work and presented a series of reflections on normal growing stock, forest development, forest management models and ensuring the sustainability of forests. He is the author of the organizational reforms in the forestry of the Military Frontier ("Instructions for the demarcation of estate-community forests in the Krajina" from 1871), the founder and the first president of the Croatian Forestry Society, and an excellent forestry scientist who translated his extensive work experience into applicable scientific works from almost all forestry disciplines. The common feature in all his works is the forests conservation and the establishment of normality, and through normality reaching sustainable management. At the same time, Tomić's keen sense for close-to-nature forestry is manifested in the search for a more precise spatial stratification of forests, more precise forest growth measurement, more flexible definition of allowed harvest volume, greater investment in the conservation and care of forests (especially in disturbed (e.g. karst) habitats). All those ideas, aimed at ensuring the sustainable management of Croatian forests, Tomić framed in his rational method of forest management, which was a very advanced combined method that takes the actual condition and possibilities of forests into account. Antun Tomić's views on forestry are the foundations of the modern Croatian forestry profession, and the aspiration to establish the spatiotemporal and structural normality of forests. Therefore, the sustainability of forest management stays a permanent challenge and goal.
The purpose of this paper was to determine the share of active and inactive forest owners in Croatia and to identify potential causes for underuse of wood resources and their most important ...predictors based on inactive forest owners sample. We interviewed 1007 randomly selected forest owners on Croatian territory with a telephone survey. Of the total sample, 60% of forest owners believe that they efficiently manage their forests while 40% are inactive (Table 1). In order to determine the most important reasons and causes for inactive forest owners not cutting more, additional questions were asked. They were provided by 19 statements describing possible reasons for underuse of wood resources. Then, on Likert’s scale from 1 (not important at all) to 5 (very important) they expressed their level of agreement with a particular statement (Table 2). The statements were condensed into three dimensions by explanatory factor analysis with eigenvalue approach. Factors were interpreted as: (1) factor of qualifications and knowledge constraints, (2) factor of passiveness and forest conservation and (3)
factor of physical constraints (Table 2). Statistically acceptable model was established by confirmatory factor analysis approach (Figure 2). The pronounced processes of structural changes in forest ownership composition, as well as in socio-demographic and forest property characteristics, are evident across Europe consequently influencing the intensity of private forest management. Within the aforementioned, we used gender, age, education, working status, the distance between the forest and the place of residence, the size of the settlement and the knowledge of forest property boundary lines as independent variables for management constraining factors model construction (Figure 1). Socio-demographic and forest property characteristics have been modeled with the extracted management constraining factors by applying a Multiple Indicators Multiple Causes (MIMIC) model (Figure 3). MIMIC model revealed that gender, age, and lack of boundary lines knowledge were the most important predictors for management constraining factors (Table 4). The notable part of forest owners in Croatia do not manage their forests because of insufficient knowledge and qualifications.
Cilj ovog istraživanja bio je utvrditi udio aktivnih i neaktivnih šumoposjednika na području Hrvatske, te na uzorku neaktivnih šumoposjednika identificirati potencijalne razloge nedovoljnog korištenja šumskih resursa, kao i njihove najznačajnije prediktore. Telefonskim anketiranjem i slučajnim odabirom intervjuirano je 1007 šumoposjednika jednoliko raspoređenih na području Hrvatske. Od ukupnog uzorka 60% šumoposjednika smatra da učinkovito gospodari svojim šumoposjedima, dok je njih 40% neaktivno. U svrhu utvrđivanja najvažnijih razloga i uzroka zbog kojih neaktivni šumoposjednici ne gospodare svojim posjedima, postavljena su im dodatna pitanja. Ponuđeno im je 19 izjava koje opisuju moguće razloge nedovoljnog korištenja šumskih resursa, te su na Likertovoj skali od 1 (uopće nije važno) do 5 (vrlo važno) izrazili svoju razinu slaganja s pojedinom izjavom. Faktorskom analizom ekstrahirana su tri faktora s najvećom svojstvenom vrijednošću. Faktori su interpretirani kao: (1) faktor neosposobljenosti i neznanja, (2) faktor pasivnosti i čuvanja šume i (3) faktor fizičkih ograničenja. Za izradu modela ograničavajućih čimbenika izostanka aktivnosti na šumoposjedima kao nezavisne varijable korištene su spol, starost, naobrazba, radni status, udaljenost između šumoposjeda i mjesta stanovanja, veličina naselja i poznavanje granica posjeda. Sociodemografske značajke i obilježja šumoposjeda modelirani su sa ekstrahiranim ograničavajućim čimbenicima izostanka aktivnosti primjenom MIMIC (Multiple Indicators Multiple Causes) modeliranja strukturalnim jednadžbama (SEM). Spol, starost i nepoznavanje granica posjeda pokazali su se kao najznačajniji prediktori. Najveći broj šumoposjednika u Hrvatskoj ne gospodari svojim šumoposjedima zbog nedovoljnog znanja i neosposobljenosti.
Raznodobne jelovo-bukove šume u Republici Hrvatskoj zauzimaju oko 157 000 ha. Tijekom povijesti njima se upravljalo različitim načinima gospodarenja, od jednodobnog do prebornog gospodarenja. Kao ...rezultat povijesne integracije hrvatskog šumarstva u njemačku šumarsku školu i uz jedinstvene ekološke značajke dinarskog područja, primarno se primjenjuje preborni način gospodarenja. U današnje vrijeme zbog različitih biotskih i abiotskih utjecaja, većina bukovo-jelovih šuma u Hrvatskoj ima prijelaznu strukturu između jednodobne i one preborne. Strukturu karakterizira velika drvna zaliha, mali prirast, loša vitalnost, slaba obnova jele i sve veći udio obične bukve. Takav ogledni primjer je i stalna pokusna ploha koja se nalazi u sjevernom dinarskom području Hrvatske i kojom gospodare “Hrvatske šume” d.o.o. Zagreb, a ujedno je i predmet ovog istraživanja. Cilj članka jest istražiti različite modele određivanja sječa koji će usmjeriti šumu u stabilniju prebornu strukturu s optimalanim prirastom i s odgovarajućim volumnim udjelom jele. Ulazni podaci dobiveni su sukcesivnim mjerenjima na stalnoj pokusnoj plohi u bukovo-jelovoj sastojini. Simulator šumskih stabala i sastojina, MOSES version 3.0, testiran je na primjenjivost u lokalnim uvjetima i korišten je za projekciju budućeg gospodarenja. Četiri scenarija temeljena na različitim modelima izračuna sječe korištena su za simulaciju mogućih smjerova budućeg gospodarenja s naglaskom na ciljani volumni udio jele, prirodnu obnovu jele, uspostavu i održavanje preborne strukture. Svi scenariji predviđaju smanjenje volumena jele praćeno agresivnom regeneracijom obične bukve te djelomično postizanje preborne strukture. Krajnje strukture šumskih sastojina (nakon 110 godina) uspoređene su i rangirane na temelju sastojinskih i ekonomskih pokazatelja. S gledišta ekološke, šumsko-gospodarske i ekonomske održivosti, model izračuna sječe koji je temeljen na trenutnoj drvnoj zalihi i desetogodišnjem prirastu pokazao se kao najbolji među istraženim scenarijima.
Uneven-aged beech-fir forests cover approximately 157 000 hectares in Republic of Croatia. During the history they have been managed according to different management systems, varying from even-aged to selection management. As a result of historical integration of Croatian forestry into the German forestry school, alongside with unique ecological characteristics of Dinaric area, selection management system has been practiced in Croatia’s forestry ever since. Today, due to various reasons majority of beech-fir forests in Croatia have transitional structure between even-aged and selection structure. It is characterized by large growing stock, small increment, low vitality, poor fir regeneration and increasing share of beech. Example of such case is permanent experimental plot situated in Croatia’s north Dinaric area and managed by “Croatian forests” Ltd., which is a subject of this research. The aim of this research is to explore different annual cut models which will in future direct forest into stabile and optimal growth rate in selection structure with adequate volume share of fir. Input data have been acquired from successive measurements on permanent experimental plot in beech-fir stand. Tree growth simulator MOSES version 3.0 was tested for applicability in local conditions and has been used for projecting future stand‘s growth. Four scenarios based on different cutting models have been used to simulate possible types of future management emphasizing fir natural regeneration, establishment and maintenance of selection structure with targeted volume share of fir versus beech, and also supporting valuable broad-leaved species. All scenarios represent fir volume reduction followed by aggressive beech regeneration and partially accomplishment of selection structure in long-term. Thus, obtained different future stand structures were compared and ranked based on stand attributes and economic indicators. Annual cut based on decennial volume increment and stocking has been found best scenario from aspects of ecological, management and economic sustainability.
Većina privatnih šumoposjednika u Hrvatskoj ima šumoposjed manji od 1 ha, što predstavlja značajan ograničavajući čimbenik u gospodarenju šumama. Cilj ovoga rada je ispitati povezanost ...sociodemografskih značajki šumoposjednika i obilježja šumoposjeda s razinom zainteresiranosti šumoposjednika za kupnju, zamjenu ili prodaju čestica pod šumom, u svrhu okrupnjavanja i povećanja suvislosti posjeda. Neposrednim anketiranjem ispitano je 500 šumoposjednika na području kontinentalne Hrvatske. Za dobivene podatke napravljena je statistička deskriptivna obrada, te izračunate mjere korelacije i testiranje razlika pojedinih kategorija. Rezultati ukazuju na jasnu povezanost sociodemografski, regionalnih i drugih obilježja šumoposjednika s razinom zainteresiranosti za okrupnjavanje šumoposjeda. Tipičan šumoposjednik zainteresiran za povećanje šumoposjeda je muškarac mlađi od 50 godina, sa završenom srednjom školom ili fakultetom, iz središnje Hrvatske koji je svoj posjed stekao kupnjom i već je aktivan bilo u udrugama šumoposjednika, bilo da koristi savjetodavne usluge Ministarstva poljoprivrede. Premali udio šumoposjednika zainteresiranih za prodaju šumoposjeda (18,9%) onemogućava daljnje okrupnjavanje. Prema tomu, mjere regulatora treba usmjeriti na proces nasljeđivanja, oprezivanje negospodarenja šumoposjedom i daljnje subvencioniranje aktivnog i disperziranog gospodarenja šumama (biomasa, nedrvni šumski proizvodi, općekorisne funkcije šuma, naknade za pohranu ugljika, naknade za ciljane vrste).
Most forest owners in Croatia have forest holdings smaller than 1 ha, while less than 1% have holdings larger than 10 ha. Parcelization of forest holdings in addition to small size presents significant limitation for forest management. Therefore, important aim of forest policy is to stimulate enlargement and consolidation of forest holdings. First step in that process is to recognize the characteristics of forest owners interested in enlargement of their holdings and active forest management.
The aim of this research is to relate the sociodemographic attributes of private forest owners and characteristics of their forest holdings with their interest for selling and/or buying forest estates for enlargement and consolidation of forestland area.
Direct survey questionnaire covered 500 private forest owners in continental part of Croatia. Respondents are classified by sex, education, employment, location of forest holding, activities in forest associations and means of acquisition of forest estate. Answers included level of interest for activities in enlargement and management of forest holdings. Statistical analysis included descriptive statistics (arithmetic mean, median, and standard error), testing between groups (Mann Whitney and Kruskal Wallis test), and Spearman rank correlation.
The results indicate correlation of sociodemographic, regional and other characteristics of forest owners with their interest in enlargement of forest holding. According to these results most interested in enlargement of forest holding are younger male owners from the central Croatia who purchased forest and are already active in forest associations (tables 1 and 2). Non-employed and self-employed owners are also more interested in enlargement of forest area to increase their incomes (table 1). However significant share of owners (35%) are not interested in increase nor in selling their forest (Figure 1) which is an impediment in consolidation of forest areas.
The results of this study are useful for future forest policies aimed at small scale forestry, although these actions are subject to large scale restrictions due to increase of protected areas and limitations to forest management resulting from reducing carbon emissions. Therefore, state regulatory measures should aim at subsidizing active and diversified forest management (forest biomass, non-wood forest products, amenity values, credits for carbon sequestration, aimed species, biodiversity). On the other hand, law measures should improve the process of inheritance and penalize the abandonment of forest areas (sources of pests and diseases, invasive species, forest fires).
The environmental, social and economic potential of Dinaric uneven-aged forests along with the complex stand dynamics influenced by different long-term management approaches and environmental factors ...require comprehensive forest monitoring. This study aimed to explore differences in the current status and recent past dynamics of stand structures between unmanaged and managed mixed fir-beech forests in the Croatian part of the Dinaric Alps using large-scale data from an established monitoring system. From the 74 permanent sample plots distributed within the forest type measured in 2008 and re-measured in 2019, we stratified four strata (types of management regimes): (1) forests out of regular management and tree harvest for at least 30 years, (2) managed state forests on carbonate bedrock, (3) managed state forests on non-carbonate bedrock and (4) managed private forests. In each sample plot, 34 structural attributes were computed to assess indicators of their current status and recent past dynamics of stands in the studied forests. An increasing Q shape diameter distribution with a high number of large and very large trees characterize unmanaged forests and managed forests on non-carbonate bedrock. In managed state forests and private forests, variable (rotated sigmoid) and constant (negative exponential) results were obtained, respectively. Principal component analysis (PCA) distinguished managed and unmanaged forests with decreasing harvest volume and recruitment, increasing basal area, number of very large trees, average diameter at breast height (DBH), crown defoliation of firs and basal area of died beech trees. The current structure, recent and expected stand dynamics in the unmanaged forests (accumulation of standing volume, increase of large diameter trees and large snags, large share of beech, large mean DBH) can be recognized as old-growth attributes. The differences between the studied forest types, potential of both unmanaged and state managed fir-beech forests and approaches to sustain multifunctional forest management in the Dinaric region were discussed.
The article investigates the efficiency of the ultrasonic Vertex hypsometer in tree height measurements in relation to some of the most commonly used hypsometers in Croatian forestry. The whole ...measurement process consists of three steps: time needed to reach the measurement zone, time needed to determine the distance to a tree, and time needed to measure and read the height of a tree. Measurements were conducted with four hypsometers: Vertex, Blume-Leiss, Bitterlich's Spiegel Relaskop with a standard scale (RO) and Bitterlich's Spiegel Relaskop with a CP scale (with the horizontally /RCPH/ or vertically /RCPV/ positioned staff). Research results do not show any statistically important differences among the hypsometers in terms of time needed to reach the measurement zone. In measuring tree heights in a stricter sense (without the element of reaching the measurement zone), the least amount of time was required by the Vertex (28.4 cmin) on average. The Vertex is followed by the relaskop with a CP scale, the horizontally (57.4 cmin) or vertically positioned staff (86.1 cmin), then the Blume-Leiss (84.0 cmin) and finally the relaskop with a standard scale (106.8 cmin). The differences between the Vertex and other hypsometers are statistically significant. Despite a slightly higher price of the Vertex, its speed, precision, accuracy and simplicity of use, as well as the possibility of simple circular plot forest inventories rank it above all the other instruments.
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