Abstract The aim of this retrospective analysis was to provide a more comprehensive understanding of the cardiorespiratory profile of world‐class ILCA‐7 sailors ( n = 3, all males), through a ...longitudinal evaluation offering real‐world data on physiological profile and exercise intensity domains. The cardiopulmonary exercise testing (CPET) was performed by the same researchers using the same equipment during the study. Assessments took place twice a year, aligning with major international competition preparations. Participants trained and competed at the same sailing club in Split, Croatia, under consistent supervision from the same team throughout the study, winning a total of 21 medals at major international competitions. The recorded ranged from 51.7 ± 1.6 to 61.9 ± 3.0 mL min −1 kg −1 , respectively. Similarly, peak power output varied from 352 ± 10 to 426 ± 34 W. The changes in physiological responses at the ventilatory thresholds were proportional to the changes in peak cardiorespiratory fitness capacity. Interestingly, the oxygen pulse measured in 2015 was 25 ± 1 mL O 2 beat −1 . Over the subsequent 6 years, the O 2 pulse marginally increased and appeared to stabilize at 27 ± 1 mL O 2 beat −1 in 2020, when these athletes were 32 ± 3 years old. This work offers a broader understanding of world‐class Olympic sailors’ cardiorespiratory fitness, going beyond the standard assessment of peak to incorporate an analysis of ventilatory thresholds. While a direct link between cardiorespiratory fitness and competitive success remains ambiguous, the importance of a well‐rounded aerobic capacity for excellence in ILCA‐7 sailing class is evident. Highlights What is the central question of this study? What are the temporal changes in the physiological profiles of three world‐class ILCA‐7 sailors? What is the main finding and its importance? Data on oxygen pulse adjustments suggest the involvement of compensatory cardiovascular mechanisms, likely associated with the isometric and quasi‐isometric contractions inherent in ILCA‐7 sailing. This is evidenced by the absence of an age‐related increase in oxygen pulse, a phenomenon often observed in endurance athletes throughout their competitive careers.
The present study investigated the influence of SCUBA dives with compressed air at depths of 10 and 20 m on ECG-derived HRV parameters in apparently healthy individuals. We hypothesized that cardiac ...sympathetic activity (measured by HRV parameters) adapts proportionally to diving depth, and that both time- and frequency-domain parameters are sensitive enough to track changes in cardiac ANS function during diving activities and subsequently during the recovery period. Eleven healthy middle-aged recreational divers (nine men and two women, age 43 ± 8, all nonsmokers) volunteered to participate in the present study. The participants (all open-circuit divers) were equipped with dry suits and ECG Holter devices and were later randomly assigned to dive pairs and depths (10 m vs. 20 m), and each participant served as his or her own control. No interaction effects (diving depth x time epoch) were found for the most commonly used HRV markers. More precisely, in response to two different diving protocols, a significant post hoc effect of time was observed for HR and SDNN, as these parameters transiently decreased during the dives and returned to baseline after ascent (
< 0.001). The ULF, VLF (
< 0.003), TP, and LF parameters decreased significantly during the dives, while HF significantly increased (
< 0.003). SCUBA diving apparently challenges the cardiac ANS, even in healthy individuals. The observed changes reveal possible underwater methods of influencing the parasympathetic activity of the heart depending on the depth of the dive. These results identify autonomic nervous system markers to track the cardiovascular risk related to diving and point to the possibility of tracking cardiovascular system benefits during underwater activities in selected patients.
Purpose
The present study investigated whether larger splenic emptying augments faster excess post-exercise O
2
consumption (EPOC) following aerobic exercise cessation.
Methods
Fifteen healthy ...participants (age 24 ± 4, 47% women) completed 3 laboratory visits at least 48-h apart. After obtaining medical clearance and familiarizing themselves with the test, they performed a ramp-incremental test in the supine position until task failure. At their final visit, they completed three step-transition tests from 20 W to a moderate-intensity power output (PO), equivalent to
V
˙
O
2
at 90% gas exchange threshold, where data on metabolic, cardiovascular, and splenic responses were recorded simultaneously. After step-transition test cessation, EPOC
fast
was recorded, and the first 10 min of the recovery period was used for further analysis. Blood samples were collected before and immediately after the end of exercise.
Results
In response to moderate-intensity supine cycling (
V
˙
O
2
= ~ 2.1 L·min
−1
), a decrease in spleen volume of ~ 35% (
p
= 0.001) was observed, resulting in a transient increase in red cell count of ~ 3–4% (
p
= 0.001) in mixed venous blood. In parallel, mean blood pressure, heart rate, and stroke volume increased by 30–100%, respectively. During recovery, mean τ
V
˙
O
2
was 45 ± 18 s, the amplitude was 2.4 ± 0.5 L·min
−1
, and EPOC
fast
was 1.69 L
·
O
2
. Significant correlations were observed between the percent change in spleen volume and (i) EPOC
fast
(
r
= − 0.657,
p
= 0.008) and (ii) τ
V
˙
O
2
(
r
= − 0.619,
p
= 0.008), but not between the change in spleen volume and (iii)
V
˙
O
2
peak (
r
= 0.435,
p
= 0.105).
Conclusion
Apparently, during supine cycling, individuals with larger spleen emptying tend to have slower
V
˙
O
2
recovery kinetics and a greater EPOC
fast
.
We studied the effects of age on different physiological parameters, including those derived from (i) maximal cardiopulmonary exercise testing (CPET), (ii) moderate-intensity step transitions, and ...(iii) tensiomyography (TMG)-derived variables in moderately active women. Twenty-eight women (age, 19 to 53 years), completed 3 laboratory visits, including baseline data collection, TMG assessment, maximal oxygen uptake test via CPET, and a step-transition test from 20 W to a moderate-intensity cycling power output (PO), corresponding to oxygen uptake at 90% gas exchange threshold. During the step transitions, breath-by-breath pulmonary oxygen uptake, near infrared spectroscopy derived muscle deoxygenation (ΔHHb), and beat-by-beat cardiovascular response were continuously monitored. There were no differences observed between the young and middle-aged women in their maximal oxygen uptake and peak PO, while the maximal heart rate (HR) was 12 bpm lower in middle-aged compared with young (p = 0.016) women. Also, no differences were observed between the age groups in τ pulmonary oxygen uptake, ΔHHb, and τHR during on-transients. The first regression model showed that age did not attenuate the maximal CPET capacity in the studied population (p = 0.638), while in the second model a faster τ pulmonary oxygen uptake, combined with shorter TMG-derived contraction time (Tc) of the vastus lateralis (VL), were associated with a higher maximal oxygen uptake (∼30% of explained variance, p = 0.039). In conclusion, long lasting exercise involvement protects against a maximal oxygen uptake and τpulmonary oxygen uptake deterioration in moderately active women.
Novelty:
Faster τ pulmonary oxygen uptake and shorter Tc of the VL explain 33% of the variance in superior maximal oxygen uptake attainment.
No differences between age groups were found in τ pulmonary oxygen uptake, τΔHHb, and τHR during on-transients.
The cardiovascular response to variable load exercise on a flywheel ergometer is still unknown.
This study examined the effects of flywheel exercise on cardiovascular response and brachial artery ...vasodilation capacity in healthy, active men.
In this cross-sectional study, nineteen men (20-57 years old) completed three laboratory visits, including a ramp exercise test to determine their maximal oxygen uptake JOURNAL/blpmo/04.03/00126097-202106000-00008/inline-graphic1/v/2021-04-27T091817Z/r/image-tiff max, and exercise intervention on a flywheel ergometer set at 0.075 kg·m2 moment of inertia. After the ramp test cessation, all participants were allocated into aerobically untrained (n = 10) and trained (n = 9) groups. Throughout the flywheel exercise, cardiovascular demands were continuously monitored via Finapres, while a pre/postflow-mediated dilation (FMD) assessment was performed using ultrasound imaging.
There were no differences observed between the groups in their anthropometrics, age or resting brachial artery diameter, while the JOURNAL/blpmo/04.03/00126097-202106000-00008/inline-graphic2/v/2021-04-27T091817Z/r/image-tiff max was ~15% higher (P = 0.001) in trained compared to aerobically untrained group. The cardiovascular response to the flywheel exercise was similar between the groups, with peak mean arterial pressure and heart rate readings reaching ~160 mmHg and ~140 bpm, respectively. The flywheel exercise did not impair the FMD (%) response, which was comparable between the groups (P = 0.256). When these data were pooled, the regression analysis showed an inverse relationship among FMD (%), age (β = -0.936, P = 0.001) and JOURNAL/blpmo/04.03/00126097-202106000-00008/inline-graphic3/v/2021-04-27T091817Z/r/image-tiffmax. (β = -0.359, P = 0.045).
Although aerobic fitness alone does not directly explain the FMD response to flywheel exercise, aerobically untrained individuals, as they get older, tend to have lower brachial artery FMD.
This manuscript quantified spleen volume changes and examined the relationship between those changes and oxygen uptake kinetics during supine cycling. Ten volunteers (age = 22 ± 3), completed 3 step ...transitions from 20 W to their power output at 90% gas exchange threshold. Ultrasonic measurements of the spleen were performed each minute. The largest spleen volume reduction was 105 mL (p = 0.001). No associations existed between i) spleen volumes at rest; and ii) spleen volume changes (%) and tau pulmonary oxygen uptake (τV̇O
2p
). Larger resting spleen volume and greater emptying do not correlate with a faster τV̇O
2p
.
Novelty:
Greater splenic contractions do not augment τV̇O
2p
, irrespective of spleen emptying and subsequent erythrocyte release.
The research questions in this study were to examine the contribution of negative automatic thoughts and negative emotions, measured by two newly-constructed questionnaires, to psychophysiological ...stress responses among more experienced military and less experienced recreational divers. Further, we examined whether daily variations in cortisol levels could be attributed to the impact of negative thoughts/emotions rather than diving experience. Altogether 15 recreational and 14 military male divers participated in the dive wherein stress responses were measured by anxiety measures (DASS-21 and STAI) and cortisol salivary concentrations. The results of factor analysis and principal component analysis demonstrated acceptable construct validity and internal consistency of both questionanires. Recreational and military divers did not differ significantly in the proportion of negative thoughts and emotions, while recreational divers had significantly higher levels of cortisol release after awakening and immediately before/after diving, indicating their more intense stress responses. A significant interaction between daily variations in cortisol secretion and negative emotions indicated a greater importance of emotions in response to diving stress rather than diving experience. Accordingly, using a multiple regression analysis showed that more pre-diving negative emotions predicted higher levels of pre-diving anxiety and depression as well as more cortisol release. More negative thoughts predicted higher levels of depressive symptoms, while belonging to a group of recreational divers was a significant predictor of higher pre-diving anxiety. This study points to the importance of considering cognitive and emotional experiences, particularly in recreational divers, for the purpose of prevention of negative psychophysiological stress responses prior to diving.
Obstructive sleep apnea (OSA) has been associated with dysregulation of the hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis and alterations in glucose metabolism with increased risk for type 2 diabetes. The aim ...of the current study was to compare morning plasma cortisol levels and glucose metabolism parameters between moderate (apnea–hypopnea index (AHI): 15–30 events/h) and severe OSA patients (AHI >30 events/h), with respective controls. A total of 56 male OSA patients, 24 moderate (AHI = 21.1 ± 5.3) and 32 severe (AHI = 49.7 ± 18.1), underwent a full-night polysomnography, oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT), and measurement of morning plasma cortisol levels. These groups were compared to 20 matched subjects in a control group. Morning plasma cortisol levels were statistically lower in severe OSA group than in moderate OSA and control groups (303.7 ± 93.5 vs. 423.9 ± 145.1 vs. 417.5 ± 99.8 pmol/L,
P
< 0.001). Significant negative correlations were found between morning plasma cortisol levels and AHI (
r
= −0.444,
P
= 0.002), as well as oxygen desaturation index (
r
= −0.381,
P
= 0.011). Fasting plasma glucose (5.0 ± 0.5 vs. 5.4 ± 0.7 vs. 4.9 ± 0.6 mmol/L,
P
= 0.009) was higher in the severe OSA group compared to moderate OSA and controls. Homeostasis model assessment insulin resistance (HOMA-IR) was higher in the severe OSA group compared to moderate OSA and controls (4.6 ± 3.7 vs. 2.7 ± 2.0 and 2.2 ± 1.8, respectively,
P
= 0.006). In conclusion, our study showed that morning plasma cortisol levels measured at 8 a.m. were significantly lower in severe OSA patients than those in moderate OSA group and controls. Morning plasma cortisol levels showed a negative correlation with AHI and oxygen desaturation index. Additionally, this study confirmed the evidence of glucose metabolism impairment in moderate and severe OSA patients, with more pronounced effect in the severe OSA patients group.
Involuntary apnea during sleep elicits sustained arterial hypertension through sympathetic activation; however, little is known about voluntary apnea, particularly in elite athletes. Their ...physiological adjustments are largely unknown. We measured blood pressure, heart rate, hemoglobin oxygen saturation, muscle sympathetic nerve activity, and vascular resistance before and during maximal end-inspiratory breath holds in 20 elite divers and in 15 matched control subjects. At baseline, arterial pressure and heart rate were similar in both groups. Maximal apnea time was longer in divers (1.7+/-0.4 versus 3.9+/-1.1 minutes; P<0.0001), and it was accompanied by marked oxygen desaturation (97.6+/-0.7% versus 77.6+/-13.9%; P<0.0001). At the end of apnea, divers showed a >5-fold greater muscle sympathetic nerve activity increase (P<0.01) with a massively increased pressor response compared with control subjects (9+/-5 versus 32+/-15 mm Hg; P<0.001). Vascular resistance increased in both groups, but more so in divers (79+/-46% versus 140+/-82%; P<0.01). Heart rate did not change in either group. The rise in muscle sympathetic nerve activity correlated with oxygen desaturation (r(2)=0.26; P<0.01) and with the increase in mean arterial pressure (r(2)=0.40; P<0.0001). In elite divers, breath holds for several minutes result in an excessive chemoreflex activation of sympathetic vasoconstrictor activity. Extensive sympathetically mediated peripheral vasoconstriction may help to maintain adequate oxygen supply to vital organs under asphyxic conditions that untrained subjects are not able to tolerate voluntarily. Our results are relevant to conditions featuring periodic apnea.
To assess the effect of air, gas mixture composed of 50% nitrogen and 50% oxygen (nitrox 50), or gas mixture composed of 1% nitrogen and 99% oxygen (nitrox 99) on bubble formation and ...vascular/endothelial function during decompression after self-contained underwater breathing apparatus diving.
This randomized controlled study, conducted in 2014, involved ten divers. Each diver performed three dives in a randomized protocol using three gases: air, nitrox 50, or nitrox 99 during ascent. The dives were performed on three different days limited to 45 m sea water (msw) depth with 20 min bottom time. Nitrogen bubbles formation was assessed by ultrasound detection after dive. Arterial/endothelial function was evaluated by brachial artery flow mediated dilatation (FMD) before and after dive.
Nitrox 99 significantly reduced bubble formation after cough compared with air and nitrox 50 (grade 1 vs 3 and vs 3, respectively, P=0.026). Nitrox 50 significantly decreased post-dive FMD compared with pre-dive FMD (3.62 ± 5.57% vs 12.11 ± 6.82% P=0.010), while nitrox 99 did not cause any significant change.
Nitrox 99 reduced bubble formation, did not change post-dive FMD, and decreased total dive duration, indicating that it might better preserve endothelial function compared with air and nitrox 50 dive protocols.
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