Representations of wildlife in television and films have long been hypothesized to shape human-wildlife interactions. A recent example is Pixar’s film Finding Dory, which featured a blue tang fish ...(Paracanthurus hepatus) as the main character and was widely reported in the popular press to have increased the number of such fish in the pet trade. We use Bayesian posterior predictive counterfactual models to evaluate the movie’s effect on three metrics of societal behaviour. Although there was an increase in global online searches for the blue tang 2–3 weeks after the movie, we find no substantial evidence for an increase in imports of blue tang fish into the US, or in number of visitors to US aquaria compared to counterfactual expectations. It is vital that an evidence-based discourse is used when communicating potential impacts of popular culture on human-wildlife relationships to avoid loss of credibility and misdirection of conservation resources.
The illegal wildlife trade is a global threat to biodiversity as well as to public health and good governance. As legislation and law enforcement have been insufficient to protect many wildlife ...species, conservationists are increasingly focused on campaigns to help reduce demand for wildlife products. Social marketing is increasingly being used to support biodiversity conservation efforts, but the extent of its use has seldom been researched. Based on interviews with conservation practitioners, we assess the extent to which social marketing has been used in demand reduction campaign design. We do this by investigating the level to which demand reduction campaigns met the benchmarks defined by the UK’s National Social Marketing Centre. We focus on rhino horn and elephant ivory, two high-profile products in the illegal wildlife trade and in China and Vietnam given their role as key consumer countries. We also investigate how conservation practitioners view the opportunities and challenges of using social marketing in the context of reducing demand for illegally traded wildlife products. Our findings highlight that there are substantial gaps between best practice in social marketing and current practices in the design of demand reduction campaigns. However, several elements of social marketing are widely utilized and a platform exists from which to build more comprehensive behavioral influence campaigns in future. In terms of future needs, practitioners highlighted the need for independent consumer research upon which to build target audience insights, a focus on broader audience segments beyond the product consumers, and the improvement of collaborations across institutions.
Social marketing campaigns use marketing techniques to influence human behavior for the greater social good. In the conservation sector, social marketing campaigns have been used to influence ...behavior for the benefit of biodiversity as well as society. However, there are few evaluations of their effectiveness. We devised an approach for evaluating the influences of social marketing campaigns on human behavior and conservation outcomes. We used general elimination methodology, a theory‐driven qualitative evaluation method, to assess the long‐term impacts of a 1998 Rare Pride campaign on the island of Bonaire that was designed to increase the population of the Lora (Amazona barbadensis), a threatened parrot. We interviewed stakeholder groups to determine their perceptions of the drivers of the changes in the Lora population over time. We used these data to develop an overall theory of change to explain changes in the Lora population by looking at the overlap in hypotheses within and between stakeholder groups. We then triangulated that theory of change with evidence from government reports, peer‐reviewed literature, and newspapers. The increase in the Lora population was largely attributed to a decrease in illegal poaching of Loras and an associated decrease in local demand for pet Loras. Decreases in poaching and demand were likely driven by a combination of law enforcement, social marketing (including the Rare campaign), and environmental education in schools. General elimination methodology helped show how multiple interventions influenced a conservation outcome over time. There is a need for evidence‐based evaluations of social marketing interventions to ensure that limited resources are spent wisely.
Evaluación del Impacto Cualitativo de una Campaña de Mercadotecnia Social para la Conservación
Resumen
Las campañas de mercadotecnia social usan técnicas de mercadotecnia para influenciar al comportamiento humano para el mayor beneficio social. En el sector de conservación, las campañas sociales se han usado para influenciar al comportamiento para el beneficio de la biodiversidad y de la sociedad. Sin embargo, existen pocas evaluaciones sobre su efectividad. Diseñamos una estrategia para evaluar la influencia de las campañas de mercadotecnia social sobre el comportamiento humano y los resultados de conservación. Usamos la metodología de eliminación general, un método de evaluación cualitativa llevada por la teoría, para evaluar los impactos a largo plazo de una campaña de Rare Pride de 1998 en la isla de Bonaire, la cual fue diseñada para incrementar la población de la lora (Amazona barbadensis), un psitácido amenazado. Entrevistamos a grupos de accionistas para determinar sus percepciones de los causantes del cambio en la población de loras con el tiempo. Usamos estos datos para desarrollar una teoría general de cambio para explicar los cambios en la población de loras al observar el traslape en las hipótesis dentro y entre los grupos de accionistas. Después triangulamos esa teoría de cambio con evidencia tomada de los reportes gubernamentales, la literatura revisada por pares, y los periódicos. El incremento poblacional de loras se atribuyó en su mayoría a una disminución en la demanda local de las loras como mascota. La disminución de la caza furtiva y de la demanda estuvo probablemente causada por una combinación de la aplicación de la ley, la mercadotecnia social (incluyendo a la campaña de Rare), y la educación ambiental en las escuelas. La metodología de eliminación general ayudó a mostrar cómo las múltiples intervenciones influyeron sobre un resultado de conservación con el tiempo. Existe una necesidad por tener evaluaciones basadas en evidencias de las intervenciones de mercadotecnia social para asegurar que los recursos limitados se usen racionalmente.
摘要
社会营销活动利用市场营销技术来影响人们的行为, 以获得更高的社会利益。在保护领域, 社会营销活动也被用来影响那些有利于生物多样性和社会的行为。然而, 目前还少有对其有效性的评估。我们设计了一种方法来评估社会营销活动对人类行为和保护成效的影响。我们用一般消元法 (一种理论驱动的定性评估方法) 来评估博内尔岛 1998 年为增加受胁迫的劳拉鹦鹉 (Amazona barbadensis) 种群数量开展的瑞尔保护协会自豪项目 (Rare Pride campaign) 的长期影响。我们采访了利益相关群体, 以确定他们认为是哪些因素导致了劳拉鹦鹉种群随时间变化而产生的变化。我们利用这些数据设计了变化的总体理论, 通过分析利益相关者群体内部和群体之间都认同的假说来解释劳拉鹦鹉的种群变化。接下来我们用来自政府报告、同行评议文献和报纸的证据, 对这个变化理论进行了三方面分析。劳拉鹦鹉数量增加主要是因为非法偷猎的减少, 以及当地对宠物劳拉鹦鹉需求的相应减少。偷猎和需求的减少可能是执法、社会营销 (包括瑞尔保护协会运动) 和学校的环境教育等因素共同作用的结果。一般消元法有助于说明长期以来多种干预措施如何作用于一项保护的成效。未来还需要对社会营销干预措施进行以证据为基础的评估, 以确保有限资源的合理利用。【翻译: 胡怡思; 审校: 聂永刚】
Article impact statement: General elimination method reveals how social marketing has influenced human behavior and conservation efforts related to parrots.
The unsustainable trade in wildlife is a key threat to Earth's biodiversity. Efforts to mitigate this threat have traditionally focused on regulation and enforcement, and there is a growing interest ...in campaigns to reduce consumer demand for wildlife products. We aimed to characterize these behavior‐change campaigns and the evidence of their impacts. We searched peer‐reviewed and grey literature repositories and over 200 institutional websites to retrieve information on demand‐reduction campaigns. We found 236 campaigns, mainly in the grey literature. Since the 1970s, the number of campaigns increased, although for over 15% a start date could not be found. Asia was the primary focus, although at the national level the United States was where most campaigns took place. Campaigns most often focused on a single species of mammal; other vertebrates groups, with the exception of sharks, received limited attention. Many campaigns focused on broad themes, such as the wildlife trade in general or seafood. Thirty‐seven percent of campaigns reported some information on their inputs, 98% on strategies, 70% on outputs, 37% on outcomes (i.e., changes in the target audience), and 9% on impacts (i.e., biological changes or threat reduction). Information on outcomes and impacts was largely anecdotal or based on research designs that are at a high risk of bias, such as pre‐ and postcampaign comparisons. It was unclear whether demand‐reduction campaigns had direct behavioral or biological impacts. The lack of robust impact evaluation made it difficult to draw insights to inform future efforts, a crucial part of effectively addressing complex issues, such as the wildlife trade. If demand‐reduction campaigns are to become a cornerstone of the efforts to mitigate the unsustainable trade in wildlife, conservationists need to adopt more rigorous impact evaluation and a more collaborative approach that fosters the sharing of data and insights.
Caracterización de los Esfuerzos para Reducir la Demanda de Productos de Fauna
Resumen
El mercado insostenible de fauna es una amenaza importante para la biodiversidad del planeta. Los esfuerzos por mitigar esta amenaza se han enfocado tradicionalmente en la regulación y la ejecución, además de que existe un interés creciente por campañas para reducir la demanda del consumidor por productos de fauna. Buscamos caracterizar estas campañas de cambios de comportamiento y las evidencias de su impacto. Buscamos en los depósitos de literatura gris y aquella revisada por colegas y en más de 200 sitios web institucionales para recuperar información sobre las campañas de reducción de demanda. Encontramos 236 campañas, principalmente en la literatura gris. Desde la década de 1970, el número de campañas incrementó, aunque para más del 15% no pudimos encontrar una fecha de inicio. Asia era el foco principal, aunque a nivel nacional fueron los Estados Unidos en donde se realizaron más campañas. La mayoría de las campañas se enfocaban en una sola especie de mamífero; los demás grupos de vertebrados, excepto los tiburones, recibieron atención limitada. Muchas campañas se enfocaron en temas generales, como el mercado de fauna en general o en la industria de los mariscos. El 37% de las campañas reportaron algo de información sobre sus entradas, el 98% sobre sus estrategias, el 70% sobre su producción, el 37% sobre sus resultados (es decir, cambios en el público diana), y el 9% sobre sus impactos (es decir, cambios biológicos o reducción de la amenaza). La información sobre los resultados y los impactos en su mayoría fue anecdótica o basada en diseños de investigación que tienen un alto riesgo de sesgo, como las comparaciones pre‐ y post‐campaña. No quedó claro si las campañas de reducción de demanda tuvieron impactos biológicos o de comportamiento directos. La falta de una evaluación fuerte de los impactos dificulta la obtención de conocimiento para informar los esfuerzos en el futuro, una parte crucial para tratar con eficiencia temas complejos, como el mercado de fauna. Si se busca que las campañas de reducción de demanda se conviertan en una piedra angular de los esfuerzos para mitigar el mercado insostenible de fauna, los conservacionistas necesitan adoptar una evaluación más rigurosa de los impactos y una estrategia más colaborativa que promueva la distribución de datos y conocimiento.
摘要
非可持续性的野生动植物贸易是地球生物多样性的主要威胁。为减缓这种威胁, 传统的策略侧重于监管和执法方面, 而今越来越关注于减少消费者野生动植物产品需求的活动。我们旨在描述这些针对行为改变的活动及其影响的实证。为检索有关减少需求的活动信息, 我们搜索了同行评议文献、灰色文献资料库, 及 200 多个机构网站.從中我們共检索到 236 项活动, 主要来自于灰色文献。尽管有超过 15% 的活动无法找到确切的开始日期, 但自 20 世纪 70 年代以来, 此类活动的数量仍是有所增加的。虽然在国家层面上美国是大多数活动的举办地, 但亚洲是主要的焦点地区。活动通常针对某一哺乳动物; 除鲨鱼外, 其他脊椎动物受到的关注有限。很多活动所侧重的主题比较宽泛, 例如总体的野生动植物贸易或海产食物。有 37% 的活动报告了其投入情况、 98% 的介绍了其策略、 70% 的总结了其产出情况、 37% 的说明了其效果 (例如目标受众的改变) 、以及 9% 的报告了其影响 (例如生物上的变化或威胁的减少) 。关于效果和影响的信息主要是轶事的或基于具有高度偏差风险的研究设计, 例如活动前后的比较。目前尚不清楚在行为或生物方面减少需求的活动是否具有直接影响。由于缺乏强有力的影响评估, 难以为未来的措施提供见解, 而这正是有效解决诸如野生动植物贸易等复杂问题的关键部分。如果减少需求的活动要成为减缓野生动植物非可持续性贸易的基石, 保护主义者需要采取更严格的影响评估和加強协作的方法, 来促进数据和见解的共享。
Article impact statement: Effort to reduce demand for wildlife products has increased, but there is high uncertainty about the impact of past campaigns.
With the recognition that most global environmental problems are a result of human actions, there is an increasing interest in approaches which have the potential to influence human behaviour. Images ...have a powerful role in shaping persuasive messages, yet research on the impacts of visual representations of nature is a neglected area in biodiversity conservation. We systematically screened existing studies on the use of animal imagery in conservation, identifying 37 articles. Although there is clear evidence that images of animals can have positive effects on people’s attitudes to animals, overall there is currently a dearth of accessible and comparable published data demonstrating the efficacy of animal imagery. Most existing studies are place and context-specific, limiting the generalisable conclusions that can be drawn. Transdisciplinary research is needed to develop a robust understanding of the contextual and cultural factors that affect how animal images can be used effectively for conservation purposes.
Conservationists often complain that their study species are ignored by donors. However, marketing theory could help understand and increase the profile and fundraising potential of these neglected ...species. We used linear regression with multimodel inference to analyse data on online behaviour from the websites of the World Wildlife Fund-US (WWF-US) and the Zoological Society of London's EDGE of Existence programme (EDGE), in order to understand how species traits and marketing campaign characteristics influenced flagship-based fundraising efforts. Our analysis accounted for species traits through variables such as appeal and familiarity, and marketing campaign characteristics through measuring the order in which the species were presented and the amount of information provided. We found that species traits were key for the WWF-US website, with appealing and threatened non-mammal species the most popular with donors. This was probably because WWF-US used well-known flagship species and so marketing had little impact. The EDGE website used a wider variety of species and in this case both species traits and the marketing campaign characteristics were important, so that appealing species and well-promoted species did best. We then predicted outcomes for a hypothetical EDGE fundraising campaign with varying degrees of marketing effort. We showed that additional marketing can have a large impact on donor behaviour, potentially increasing the interest of potential donors towards unappealing species by up to 26 times. This increase would more than equal the amount raised by campaigns using appealing species without additional promotion. Our results show marketing can have a large impact on donor behaviour and suggest there is scope for successful marketing campaigns based on a much wider range of species.
Online crowdfunding can help address the perennial financial shortfalls in environmental conservation and management. Although many online crowdfunding campaigns fail to collect any funds due to not ...achieving their targets, little is known about what drives success. To address this knowledge gap, we applied a mixed-methods approach to data from 473 successful and failed campaigns hosted on the online crowdfunding platform Readyfor. We found that fundraising performance varied by topic, with campaigns on pet animal management outperforming those focussed on landscape management and sustainable use. We also found that marketing strategies associated with online findability and increased reach through social networks, increased fundraising success. However, the existence of other environmental campaigns running simultaneously, reduced the chance of success, which implies that the selecting popular topics does not always increase the likelihood of success due to increased competition. Wider applications of marketing could enhance the ability of environmental crowdfunding campaigns to raise funds.
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