Context. Imaging spectroscopy in X-rays with RHESSI provides the possibility to investigate the spatial evolution of X-ray emitting electron distribution and therefore, to study transport effects on ...energetic electrons during solar flares. Aims. We study the energy dependence of the scattering mean free path of energetic electrons in the solar corona. Methods. We used imaging spectroscopy with RHESSI to study the evolution of energetic electrons distribution in various parts of the magnetic loop during the 2004 May 21 flare. We compared these observations with the radio observations of the gyrosynchrotron radiation of the same flare and with the predictions of a diffusive transport model. Results. X-ray analysis shows a trapping of energetic electrons in the corona and a spectral hardening of the energetic electron distribution between the top of the loop and the footpoints. Coronal trapping of electrons is stronger for radio-emitting electrons than for X-ray-emitting electrons. These observations can be explained by a diffusive transport model. Conclusions. We show that the combination of X-ray and radio diagnostics is a powerful tool to study electron transport in the solar corona in different energy domains. We show that the diffusive transport model can explain our observations, and in the range 25–500 keV, the scattering mean free path of electrons decreases with electron energy. We can estimate for the first time the scattering mean free path dependence on energy in the corona.
Context. The energy released during solar flares is believed to be stored in non-potential magnetic fields associated with electric currents flowing in the corona. While no measurements of coronal ...electric currents are presently available, maps of photospheric electric currents can now be derived from SDO/HMI observations. Photospheric electric currents have been shown to be the tracers of the coronal electric currents. Particle acceleration can result from electric fields associated with coronal electric currents. We revisit here some aspects of the relationship between particle acceleration in solar flares and electric currents in the active region. Aims. We study the relation between the energetic electron interaction sites in the solar atmosphere, and the magnitudes and changes of vertical electric current densities measured at the photospheric level, during the X2.2 flare on February 15, 2011, in AR NOAA 11158. Methods. X-ray images from the Reuven Ramaty High Energy Solar Spectroscopic Imager (RHESSI) are overlaid on magnetic field and electric current density maps calculated from the spectropolarimetric measurements of the Helioseismic and Magnetic Imager (HMI) on the Solar Dynamics Observatory (SDO) using the UNNOFIT inversion and Metcalf disambiguation codes. X-ray images are also compared with extreme ultraviolet (EUV) images from the SDO Atmospheric Imaging Assembly (AIA) to complement the flare analysis. Results. Part of the elongated X-ray emissions from both thermal and non-thermal electrons overlay the elongated narrow current ribbons observed at the photospheric level. A new X-ray source at 50−100 keV (produced by non-thermal electrons) is observed in the course of the flare and is cospatial with a region in which new vertical photospheric currents appeared during the same period (an increase of 15%). These observational results are discussed in the context of the scenarios in which magnetic reconnection (and subsequent plasma heating and particle acceleration) occurs at current-carrying layers in the corona.
Context. Twisted magnetic fields should be ubiquitous in the solar corona, particularly in flare-producing active regions where the magnetic fields are strongly non-potential. The magnetic energy ...contained in such twisted fields can be released during solar flares and other explosive phenomena. It has recently been shown that reconnection in helical magnetic coronal loops results in plasma heating and particle acceleration distributed within a large volume, including the lower coronal and chromospheric sections of the loops. Hence, the magnetic reconnection and particle acceleration scenario involving magnetic helicity can be a viable alternative to the standard flare model, where particles are accelerated only in a small volume located in the upper corona. Aims. The key goal of this study is to investigate the links and observational signatures of plasma heating and particle acceleration in kink-unstable twisted coronal loops. Methods. We used a combination of magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) simulations and test-particle methods. These simulations describe the development of kink instability and magnetic reconnection in twisted coronal loops using resistive compressible MHD and incorporate atmospheric stratification and large-scale loop curvature. The resulting distributions of hot plasma let us estimate thermal X-ray emission intensities. With the electric and magnetic fields we obtained, we calculated electron trajectories using the guiding-centre approximation. These trajectories combined with the MHD plasma density distributions let us deduce synthetic hard X-ray bremsstrahlung intensities. Results. Our simulations emphasise that the geometry of the emission patterns produced by hot plasma in flaring twisted coronal loops can differ from the actual geometry of the underlying magnetic fields. In particular, the twist angles revealed by the emission threads (soft X-ray thermal emission; SXR) are consistently lower than the field-line twist present at the onset of the kink instability. Hard X-ray (HXR) emission that is due to the interaction of energetic electrons with the stratified background is concentrated at the loop foot-points in these simulations, even though the electrons are accelerated everywhere within the coronal volume of the loop. The maximum of the HXR emission consistently precedes that of SXR emission, with the HXR light curve being approximately proportional to the temporal derivative of the SXR light curve.
We present a statistical survey of almost 10,000 radio type III bursts observed by the Nancay Radioheliograph from 1998 to 2008, covering nearly a full solar cycle. In particular, sources sizes, ...positions, and fluxes were examined. We find an east-west asymmetry in source positions that could be attributed to a 6degrees + or - 1degrees eastward tilt of the magnetic field, that source FWHM sizes s roughly follow a solar-cycle-averaged distribution (dN/ds) approximately 14 v super(-3.3) s super(-4) arcmin super(-1) day super(-1), and that source fluxes closely follow a solar-cycle-averaged (dN/ds sub(v)) approximately 0.34 v super(-2.9)S super(-1.7) sub(v) sfu super(-1) day super(-1) distribution (when v is in GHz, s in arcminutes, and Sv in sfu). Fitting a barometric density profile yields a temperature of 0.6 MK, while a solar wind-like (is proportional to h super(-2)) density profile yields a density of 1.2 x 10 super(6) cm super(-3) at an altitude of 1 R sub(S), assuming harmonic emission. Finally, we found that the solar-cycle-averaged radiated type III energy could be similar in magnitude to that radiated by nanoflares via non-thermal bremsstrahlung processes, and we hint at the possibility that escaping electron beams might carry as much energy away from the corona as is introduced into it by accelerated nanoflare electrons.
Gamma-rays and neutrons are the only sources of information on energetic ions present during solar flares and on properties of these ions when they interact in the solar atmosphere. The production of
...γ
-rays and neutrons results from convolution of the nuclear cross-sections with the ion distribution functions in the atmosphere. The observed
γ
-ray and neutron fluxes thus provide useful diagnostics for the properties of energetic ions, yielding strong constraints on acceleration mechanisms as well as properties of the interaction sites. The problem of ion transport between the accelerating and interaction sites must also be addressed to infer as much information as possible on the properties of the primary ion accelerator. In the last couple of decades, both theoretical and observational developments have led to substantial progress in understanding the origin of solar
γ
-rays and neutrons. This chapter reviews recent developments in the study of solar
γ
-rays and of solar neutrons at the time of the
RHESSI
era. The unprecedented quality of the
RHESSI
data reveals
γ
-ray line shapes for the first time and provides
γ
-ray images. Our previous understanding of the properties of energetic ions based on measurements from the former solar cycles is also summarized. The new results—obtained owing both to the gain in spectral resolution (both with
RHESSI
and with the non solar-dedicated
INTEGRAL
/SPI instrument) and to the pioneering imaging technique in the
γ
-ray domain—are presented in the context of this previous knowledge. Still open questions are emphasized in the last section of the chapter and future perspectives on this field are briefly discussed.
This review discusses the complementary relationship between radio and hard X-ray observations of the Sun using primarily results from the era of the
Reuven Ramaty High Energy Solar Spectroscopic ...Imager
satellite. A primary focus of joint radio and hard X-ray studies of solar flares uses observations of nonthermal gyrosynchrotron emission at radio wavelengths and bremsstrahlung hard X-rays to study the properties of electrons accelerated in the main flare site, since it is well established that these two emissions show very similar temporal behavior. A quantitative prescription is given for comparing the electron energy distributions derived separately from the two wavelength ranges: this is an important application with the potential for measuring the magnetic field strength in the flaring region, and reveals significant differences between the electrons in different energy ranges. Examples of the use of simultaneous data from the two wavelength ranges to derive physical conditions are then discussed, including the case of microflares, and the comparison of images at radio and hard X-ray wavelengths is presented. There have been puzzling results obtained from observations of solar flares at millimeter and submillimeter wavelengths, and the comparison of these results with corresponding hard X-ray data is presented. Finally, the review discusses the association of hard X-ray releases with radio emission at decimeter and meter wavelengths, which is dominated by plasma emission (at lower frequencies) and electron cyclotron maser emission (at higher frequencies), both coherent emission mechanisms that require small numbers of energetic electrons. These comparisons show broad general associations but detailed correspondence remains more elusive.
Context. Solar flares are associated with intense soft X-ray emission generated by the hot flaring plasma in coronal magnetic loops. Kink-unstable twisted flux-ropes provide a source of magnetic ...energy that can be released impulsively and may account for the heating of the plasma in flares. Aims. We investigate the temporal, spectral, and spatial evolution of the properties of the thermal continuum X-ray emission produced in such kink-unstable magnetic flux-ropes and discuss the results of the simulations with respect to solar flare observations. Methods. We computed the temporal evolution of the thermal X-ray emission in kink-unstable coronal loops based on a series of magnetohydrodynamical numerical simulations. The numerical setup consisted of a highly twisted loop embedded in a region of uniform and untwisted background coronal magnetic field. We let the kink instability develop, computed the evolution of the plasma properties in the loop (density, temperature) without accounting for mass exchange with the chromosphere. We then deduced the X-ray emission properties of the plasma during the whole flaring episode. Results. During the initial (linear) phase of the instability, plasma heating is mostly adiabatic (as a result of compression). Ohmic diffusion takes over as the instability saturates, leading to strong and impulsive heating (up to more than 20 MK), to a quick enhancement of X-ray emission, and to the hardening of the thermal X-ray spectrum. The temperature distribution of the plasma becomes broad, with the emission measure depending strongly on temperature. Significant emission measures arise for plasma at temperatures higher than 9 MK. The magnetic flux-rope then relaxes progressively towards a lower energy state as it reconnects with the background flux. The loop plasma suffers smaller sporadic heating events, but cools down globally by thermal conduction. The total thermal X-ray emission slowly fades away during this phase, and the high-temperature component of the emission measure distribution converges to the power-law distribution EM ∝ T-4.2. The twist deduced directly from the X-ray emission patterns is considerably lower than the highest magnetic twist in the simulated flux-ropes.
We investigate the X-ray and UV emission detected by RHESSI and TRACE in the context of a solar flare on the 16th November 2002 with the goal of better understanding the evolution of the flare. We ...analysed the characteristics of the X-ray emission in the 12–25 and 25–50 keV energy range while we looked at the UV emission at 1600 Å . The flare appears to have two distinct phases of emission separated by a 25-s time delay, with the first phase being energetically more important. We found good temporal and spatial agreement between the 25–50 keV X-rays and the most intense areas of the 1600 Å UV emission. We also observed an extended 100-arcsec < 25 keV source that appears coronal in nature and connects two separated UV ribbons later in the flare. Using the observational properties in X-ray and UV wavelengths, we propose two explanations for the flare evolution in relation to the spine/fan magnetic field topology and the accelerated electrons. We find that a combination of quasi separatrix layer reconnection and null-point reconnection is required to account for the observed properties of the X-ray and UV emission.
We review basic theoretical concepts in particle acceleration, with particular emphasis on processes likely to occur in regions of magnetic reconnection. Several new developments are discussed, ...including detailed studies of reconnection in three-dimensional magnetic field configurations (e.g., current sheets, collapsing traps, separatrix regions) and stochastic acceleration in a turbulent environment. Fluid, test-particle, and particle-in-cell approaches are used and results compared. While these studies show considerable promise in accounting for the various observational manifestations of solar flares, they are limited by a number of factors, mostly relating to available computational power. Not the least of these issues is the need to explicitly incorporate the electrodynamic feedback of the accelerated particles themselves on the environment in which they are accelerated. A brief prognosis for future advancement is offered.
We investigate the type III radio bursts and X-ray signatures of accelerated electrons in a well-observed solar flare in order to find the spatial properties of the acceleration region. Combining ...simultaneous RHESSI hard X-ray flare data and radio data from Phoenix-2 and the Nançay radioheliograph, the outward transport of flare accelerated electrons is analysed. The observations show that the starting frequencies of type III bursts are anti-correlated with the HXR spectral index of solar flare accelerated electrons. We demonstrate both analytically and numerically that the type III burst starting location is dependent upon the accelerated electron spectral index and the spatial acceleration region size, but weakly dependent on the density of energetic electrons for relatively intense electron beams. Using this relationship and the observed anti-correlation, we estimate the height and vertical extent of the acceleration region, giving values of around 50 Mm and 10 Mm, respectively. The inferred acceleration height and size suggest that electrons are accelerated well above the soft X-ray loop-top, which could be consistent with the electron acceleration between 40 Mm and 60 Mm above the flaring loop.
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