“Lure and kill” technology has been used for several decades in pest management and eradication of invasive species. In lure and kill, the insect pest attracted by a semiochemical lure is not ...“entrapped” at the source of the attractant as in mass trapping, but instead the insect is subjected to a killing agent, which eliminates affected individuals from the population after a short period. In past decades, a growing scientific literature has been published on this concept. This article provides the first review on the potential of lure and kill in long-term pest management and eradication of invasive species. We present a summary of lure and kill, either when used as a stand-alone control method or in combination with other methods. We discuss its efficacy in comparison with other control methods. Several case studies in which lure and kill has been used with the aims of long-term pest management (e.g., pink bollworm, Egyptian cotton leafworm, codling moth, apple maggot, biting flies, and bark beetles) or the eradication of invasive species (e.g., tephritid fruit flies and boll weevils) are provided. Subsequently, we identify essential knowledge required for successful lure and kill programs that include lure competitiveness with natural odor source; lure density; lure formulation and release rate; pest population density and risk of immigration; and biology and ecology of the target species. The risks associated with lure and kill, especially when used in the eradication programs, are highlighted. We comment on the cost-effectiveness of this technology and its strengths and weaknesses, and list key reasons for success and failure. We conclude that lure and kill can be highly effective in controlling small, low-density, isolated populations, and thus it has the potential to add value to long-term pest management. In the eradication of invasive species, lure and kill offers a major advantage in effectiveness by its being inverse density dependent and it provides some improvements in efficacy over related control methods. However, the inclusion of insecticides or sterilants in lure and kill formulations presents a major obstacle to public acceptance.
Complex organismal traits are often the result of multiple interacting genes and sub-organismal phenotypes, but how these interactions shape the evolutionary trajectories of adaptive traits is poorly ...understood. We examined how functional interactions between cardiorespiratory traits contribute to adaptive increases in the capacity for aerobic thermogenesis (maximal O.sub.2 consumption, VÌO.sub.2max, during acute cold exposure) in high-altitude deer mice (Peromyscus maniculatus). We crossed highland and lowland deer mice to produce F.sub.2 inter-population hybrids, which expressed genetically based variation in hemoglobin (Hb) O.sub.2 affinity on a mixed genetic background. We then combined physiological experiments and mathematical modeling of the O.sub.2 transport pathway to examine the links between cardiorespiratory traits and VÌO.sub.2max. Physiological experiments revealed that increases in Hb-O.sub.2 affinity of red blood cells improved blood oxygenation in hypoxia but were not associated with an enhancement in VÌO.sub.2max. Sensitivity analyses performed using mathematical modeling showed that the influence of Hb-O.sub.2 affinity on VÌO.sub.2max in hypoxia was contingent on the capacity for O.sub.2 diffusion in active tissues. These results suggest that increases in Hb-O.sub.2 affinity would only have adaptive value in hypoxic conditions if concurrent with or preceded by increases in tissue O.sub.2 diffusing capacity. In high-altitude deer mice, the adaptive benefit of increasing Hb-O.sub.2 affinity is contingent on the capacity to extract O.sub.2 from the blood, which helps resolve controversies about the general role of hemoglobin function in hypoxia tolerance.
Semiochemical-based pest management programs comprise three major approaches that are being used to provide environmentally friendly control methods of insect pests: mass trapping, “lure and kill,” ...and mating disruption. In this article, we review the potential of mass trapping in long-term pest management as well as in the eradication of invasive species. We discuss similarities and differences between mass trapping and other two main approaches of semiochemical-based pest management programs. We highlight several study cases where mass trapping has been used either in long-term pest management e.g., codling moth, Cydia pomonella (L.); pink bollworm, Pectinophora gossypiella (Saunders); bark beetles, palm weevils, corn rootworms (Diabrotica spp.); and fruit flies or in eradication of invasive species e.g., gypsy moth, Lymantria dispar (L.); and boll weevil, Anthonomus grandis grandis Boheman). We list the critical issues that affect the efficacy of mass trapping and compare these with previously published models developed to investigate mass trapping efficacy in pest control. We conclude that mass trapping has good potential to suppress or eradicate low-density, isolated pest populations; however, its full potential in pest management has not been adequately realized and therefore encourages further research and development of this technology.
In vertebrates, changes in surface temperature following exposure to an acute stressor are thought to be promising indicators of the physiological stress response that may be captured noninvasively ...by infrared thermography. However, the efficacy of using stress‐induced changes in surface temperature as indicators of physiological stress‐responsiveness requires: (1) an understanding of how such responses vary across the body, (2) a magnitude of local, stress‐induced thermal responses that is large enough to discriminate and quantify differences among individuals with conventional technologies, and (3) knowledge of how susceptible measurements across different body regions are to systematic error. In birds, temperature of the bare tissues surrounding the eye (the periorbital, or “eye,” region) and covering the bill have each been speculated as possible predictors of stress physiological state. Using the domestic pigeon (Columba livia domestica; n = 9), we show that stress‐induced changes in surface temperature are most pronounced at the bill and that thermal responses at only the bill have sufficient resolution to detect and quantify differences in responsiveness among individuals. More importantly, we show that surface temperature estimates at the eye region experience greater error due to changes in bird orientation than those at the bill. Such error concealed detection of stress‐induced thermal responses at the eye region. Our results highlight that: (1) in some species, bill temperature may serve as a more robust indicator of autonomic stress‐responsiveness than eye region temperature, and (2) future studies should account for spatial orientation of study individuals if inference is to be drawn from infrared thermographic images.
In vertebrates, changes in surface temperature following exposure to an acute stressor are thought to be promising indicators of the physiological stress response that may be captured non‐invasively by infrared thermography. However, the efficacy of using changes in surface temperature as indicators of physiological stress‐responsiveness requires: (1) an understanding of how such responses vary across the body (2) a magnitude of local, stress‐induced thermal responses that is large enough to discriminate and quantify differences among individuals with conventional technologies, and (3) knowledge of how susceptible measurements across different body regions are to systematic error. Using the Domestic Pigeon (Columba livia domestica; n = 9), we show that both the capacity to detect and quantify surface temperature responses to stress‐exposure among individuals depends upon the body region of observation and whether common sources of measurement error (here, individual orientation) are controlled.
This study investigated the potential spread of CTX-M-14 Escherichia coli from a known ESBL E. coli positive farm and risk factors for the presence of CTX-M E. coli on dairy farms. Between November ...2009 and March 2010, 65 farms in North West England and North Wales were visited and animals sampled for E. coli producing CTX-M ESBLs. Seventeen of these were known to have received animals from a known ESBL E. coli positive ‘index’ farm since 2005 (linked farms). The prevalence of CTX-M E. coli in the population of linked farms was 58.8% (10/17; CI95% 32.9–81.6%) and in the randomly selected control population was 35.4% (17/48; CI95% 22.2–50.5%). There was no significant (p>0.05) linkage for the detection of any CTX-M E. coli or specifically a CTX-M-14 E. coli to the index farm. Group 1 (CTX-M-15, CTX-M-55, CTX-M-1, CTX-M-32), group 2 (CTX-M-2) and group 9 (CTX-M-14, CTX-M-14B, CTX-M-27) CTX-M E. coli were identified on the study farms. Molecular analysis revealed that three plasmids from linked farms had similar sizes (95kbp), replicon type (IncK) and backbone genes as that from the index farm. Logistic regression analysis revealed that farms that had used a 3rd or 4th generation cephalosporin (ceftiofur, cefoperazone and cefquinome) in livestock in the last 12months were nearly 4times more likely to have ESBL E. coli present (p=0.037; OR=3.93). There was no significant association between presence of CTX-M E. coli and the use of any 1st or 2nd generation cephalosporins. Several other risk factors for the presence of CTX-M E. coli were identified, such as storage of slurry in a pit, operating an open herd policy and infrequent cleaning of calf feeding equipment.
Hypoxia can have significant impacts on cardiovascular physiology, but the effects of chronic exposure to moderate hypoxia and how they differ between sexes remain poorly understood. We used ...physiological telemetry to examine this issue in CD-1 mice. Adult mice were chronically exposed to normoxia or hypobaric hypoxia (12 kPa O
) for 6 wk and then subjected to telemetry measurements of routine physiology across the diel cycle. Heart rate (
), mean arterial blood pressure (
), body temperature (
), and activity were greater during the nighttime active phase than the daytime inactive phase. Chronic hypoxia had no effect on these traits at night but had sex-specific effects during the day, when chronic hypoxia reduced
,
, and activity in males but not females. These differences existed without any effect of chronic hypoxia on α-adrenergic or nitric oxide tone on the vasculature (assessed as
response to pharmacological blockade). Responses to acute hypoxia were then measured during stepwise reductions in inspired O
from 21 to 8 kPa O
. O
consumption rate,
,
, and
declined in severe hypoxia, but the O
tension at which this began was lower in mice held in chronic hypoxia. However, the hypoxic ventilatory response was augmented by exposure to chronic hypoxia in females but not in males. Females also exhibited larger increases in lung mass and less right ventricle hypertrophy than males in chronic hypoxia. Our results support the growing evidence that there can be considerable sex differences in the cardiorespiratory responses to hypoxia.
The evolution of endothermy was instrumental to the diversification of birds and mammals, but the energetic demands of maintaining high body temperature could offset the advantages of endothermy in ...some environments. We hypothesized that reductions in body temperature help high-altitude natives overcome the metabolic challenges of cold and hypoxia in their native environment. Deer mice (
) from high-altitude and low-altitude populations were bred in captivity to the second generation and were acclimated as adults to warm normoxia or cold hypoxia. Subcutaneous temperature (
, used as a proxy for body temperature) and cardiovascular function were then measured throughout the diel cycle using biotelemetry. Cold hypoxia increased metabolic demands, as reflected by increased food consumption and heart rate (associated with reduced vagal tone). These increased metabolic demands were offset by plastic reductions in
(approx. 2°C) in response to cold hypoxia, and highlanders had lower
(approx. 1°C) than lowlanders in both environmental treatments. Empirical and theoretical evidence suggested that these reductions could together reduce metabolic demands by approximately 10-30%. Therefore, plastic and evolved reductions in body temperature can help mammals overcome the metabolic challenges at high altitude and may be a valuable energy-saving strategy in some non-hibernating endotherms in extreme environments.
Studies of animals native to high altitude can provide valuable insight into physiological mechanisms and evolution of performance in challenging environments. We investigated how mechanisms ...controlling cardiovascular function may have evolved in deer mice (Peromyscus maniculatus) native to high altitude. High-altitude deer mice and low-altitude white-footed mice (P. leucopus) were bred in captivity at sea level, and first-generation lab progeny were raised to adulthood and acclimated to normoxia or hypoxia. We then used pharmacological agents to examine the capacity for adrenergic receptor stimulation to modulate heart rate (fH) and mean arterial pressure (Pmean) in anaesthetized mice, and used cardiac pressure-volume catheters to evaluate the contractility of the left ventricle. We found that highlanders had a consistently greater capacity to increase fH via pharmacological stimulation of β1-adrenergic receptors than lowlanders. Also, whereas hypoxia acclimation reduced the capacity for increasing Pmean in response to α-adrenergic stimulation in lowlanders, highlanders exhibited no plasticity in this capacity. These differences in highlanders may help augment cardiac output during locomotion or cold stress, and may preserve their capacity for α-mediated vasoconstriction to more effectively redistribute blood flow to active tissues. Highlanders did not exhibit any differences in some measures of cardiac contractility (maximum pressure derivative, dP/dtmax, or end-systolic elastance, Ees), but ejection fraction was highest in highlanders after hypoxia acclimation. Overall, our results suggest that evolved changes in sensitivity to adrenergic stimulation of cardiovascular function may help deer mice cope with the cold and hypoxic conditions at high altitude.
•High-altitude deer mice have evolved increased aerobic capacity in hypoxia.•Cardiovascular regulation was examined in normoxia and chronic hypoxia.•Highland mice had increased capacity for β1-adrenergic stimulation of heart rate.•Hypoxia reduced vascular α-adrenergic sensitivity in lowland but not highland mice.•Cardiac ejection fraction was elevated in highland mice in chronic hypoxia.
Literature is reviewed on the spatial distribution of the eggs and neonate larvae of codling moth on apple trees in relation to research conducted in Nelson, New Zealand. At Nelson, oviposition ...increased with height and was greater in the north and east of the trees and in those with greater fruit load in some seasons, which matches published reports. All publications and the research recorded high percentages of eggs laid singly within 10-15 cm of the fruit, with most eggs on leaves even within fruit clusters; oviposition on fruit clusters of different sizes was nonrandom because more eggs were laid on those with more fruit, but the aggregation of both per cluster and within clusters was even greater than that caused by the fruit number alone. Oviposition at random with respect to the fruit occurred only at very low population density. The choice of oviposition site between fruit and the adaxial leaf surface and abaxial leaf surface (AbLS) was variable and cultivar related. Cultivars on which eggs predominated on the AbLS were less frequent and characterized by low trichome density. In the literature, neonate larvae from eggs on the AbLS suffered greater mortality, as did those in Nelson that hatched more distant from the fruit. This review discusses the interaction between these distribution characteristics and species-specific host-plant volatiles, egg adhesion to plant surfaces, oviposition deterrents, predation, and their relevance to pest management.
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