Virtual fencing systems have emerged as a promising technology for managing the distribution of livestock in extensive grazing environments. This study provides comprehensive documentation of the ...learning process involving two conditional behavioral mechanisms and the documentation of efficient, effective, and safe animal training for virtual fence applications on nursing Brangus cows. Two hypotheses were examined: (1) animals would learn to avoid restricted zones by increasing their use of containment zones within a virtual fence polygon, and (2) animals would progressively receive fewer audio-electric cues over time and increasingly rely on auditory cues for behavioral modification. Data from GPS coordinates, behavioral metrics derived from the collar data, and cueing events were analyzed to evaluate these hypotheses. The results supported hypothesis 1, revealing that virtual fence activation significantly increased the time spent in containment zones and reduced time in restricted zones compared to when the virtual fence was deactivated. Concurrently, behavioral metrics mirrored these findings, with cows adjusting their daily travel distances, exploration area, and cumulative activity counts in response to the allocation of areas with different virtual fence configurations. Hypothesis 2 was also supported by the results, with a decrease in cueing events over time and increased reliance with animals on audio cueing to avert receiving the mild electric pulse. These outcomes underscore the rapid learning capabilities of groups of nursing cows in responding to virtual fence boundaries.
The primary aim of this research was to classify ground beetle species, collected from farmland habitats in Scotland, into distinct groups based on their ecological traits. The objective ...classification of 68 species on this basis, using multivariate analyses, identified seven distinct ecological groups that were primarily determined by size, diel activity and diet (e.g. large
Carabus spp., nocturnal plant feeders and species feeding on Collembola). The influence of agricultural land use and management intensity on these ecological groups was then investigated. The percentage of both
Carabus spp. and individuals was greater on heather moorland and semi-natural grassland sites than in intensively managed arable or grassland sites. The percentage of
Carabus spp. was also adversely affected by intensive agricultural management. A higher percentage of carabids feed specifically on Collembola in intensive grassland sites than in arable or semi-natural grassland sites suggesting that Collembola were more available in intensive grassland. This study introduces a non-taxonomic method of classifying carabids on the basis of their ecology. Such classification methods not only enable influences of agriculture to be detected across broad ecological groups rather than being reliant on the presence of a few key indicator species, but may also help in predicting how such changes to the community structure may influence ecosystem functioning.
High Nature Value farming systems cover a large proportion of the agricultural land in marginal and mountain areas of Europe. These large areas face environmental, economic and social challenges and ...formulating policies that support all these aspects is difficult. Although farmers play an important role in maintaining the ecological diversity of these areas, their differing management styles are often not recognised when land use policies are formulated. This paper examines these issues using an optimisation model based on an extensive livestock farm in Western Scotland, where four farmers' management styles are combined with a series of six alternative future land use scenarios, to provide a more realistic and robust insight of policy impacts on land use and habitat, labour and farm income. The management styles derived from a typology that was based on a composite of both available resources and attitudinal components. The six alternative scenarios encompassed competitive land use diversification options (woodland and wild deer shooting), abandonment of native pasture for agriculture, no support, high market prices for livestock products, and increased animal efficiency. Although diversification via forestry was found to be potentially central to increasing farming incomes, farmers' reticence to adopt forestry or any diversification was a major constraint. This case study also reinforced that managing livestock on these HNV farming systems was not economical unless support subsidies were in place. The only scenario which could enhance the HNV biodiversity value on farms was one with high market prices, resulting in the most varied land use (sheep, cattle and forestry). All others scenarios meant an increase in afforestation (which displaced livestock), an increase in livestock grazing or abandonment of the land, none of which would maintain biodiversity in these areas. Very few scenarios were able to increase on-farm labour demand and although greater flexibility in farm labour was found to be essential, labour scarcity in these marginal mountain areas remained a problem. In conclusion, this case study reinforced that farmers' management style and motivation do play a major role on how they respond to policies, and unless this role is acknowledged by policy-makers, these European HNV areas may not be targeted properly for the most desired outcomes and sustainability.
•HNV farmers' management styles dictate how they react to the policy-making process.•Public support is crucial to economic survival of the farmers.•Public support must acknowledge disparities in farmers' motivations.•High market prices could ensure a land use mix favourable to HNV biodiversity on farm.•Labour flexibility is a barrier to diversification and higher efficiency in HNV farming systems.
Interest in developing more flexible fencing technology to improve pasture and rangeland management is increasing. The objective of this study was to test the efficacy of a new virtual fencing ...product and measure impact on behavior, thus potentially allowing positive development of virtual fence systems. The Boviguard (Agrifence, Henderson Products Ltd., Gloucester, UK) invisible fence is now commercially available, consisting of cow collars, a battery-based transformer, and an induction cable laid on the ground or buried in the ground. As the Boviguard collar comes close to the induction cable, a warning sound is triggered and if the animal continues to move closer, an electrical stimulus is triggered. We tested this novel system on 10 cows wearing global positioning system (GPS) collars to pinpoint location and activity sensors to gather behavioral data. Two separate exclusion zones were created consecutively in different areas of a test field, with alternate periods of control, with no fence activity, and virtual fence activation. The system successfully prevented the animals from crossing the virtual fence line. No changes in general activity or lying behavior were found. There were significant changes in the pattern of use of the rest of the field area when the fencing system was activated. When only the unactivated cable was left on the ground in a final control period, the visual cue alone deterred animals from entering the exclusion area. The trial showed the effectiveness of a collar-based electrical stimuli system. This approach to virtual fencing could provide solutions for management systems where moving fences frequently is required, such as for strip grazing, nature conservation management of specific areas and habitats, and grazers of land where physical fences are not preferred or feasible.
Although mountain sheep systems suffer from climatic and environmental handicaps that constrain productivity and economic viability, they have an important economic role, maintain habitats and ...species of high nature conservation value and support the provision of a range of ecosystem services of benefit to society. Using Precision Livestock Farming (PLF) in extensive mountain sheep systems could bring benefits for animal performance, economical performance and labour. This paper presents results from a 3 year experiment where PLF principles were implemented on an extensive mountain sheep farm and an assessment made of whether or not such an approach could benefit more marginal sheep systems. A 900 ewe flock (600 Scottish Blackface ewes, 300 Lleyn ewes) was divided equally into two separate systems, one where the flock was managed conventionally (CON) at group level, and the other where the individuals in the flock were subjected to a PLF management protocol where electronic weighing, recording and drafting equipment were used, linked to the electronic identification (EID) tags of the animals. Two main management strategies were compared and contrasted; one relating to winter feeding of the pregnant ewes, the other relating to anthelmintic treatment of lambs during the summer. Yearly labour profiles were created by measuring the time spent doing individual tasks associated with the two management systems. Net margins (£/ewe) were calculated for the two systems. Additionally, the yearly labour profiles were scaled-up using commercial data to quantify potential labour savings on more traditionally managed mountain farms if PLF principles were adopted. Analyses indicated that the two different management systems did not result in any significant difference in terms of ewe weights, mid-pregnancy scanning figures, ewe and lamb mortality rates, or lamb weight post-weaning. However, the proportion of lambs needing anthelmintic treatment was significantly reduced by 40% between the CON and the PLF, resulting in a reduction of 46% in the amount of anthelmintic used. Over a whole year, the total amount of labour required in the PLF management system was reduced by 36%. Across the 3 years, the net margin for the two systems showed an average difference of £3/ewe higher in the PLF. For a more traditional farm embracing a PLF approach, analyses suggested labour reduction of 19%, equating to £1.60/ewe savings. This study shows that it is beneficial for farmers to consider managing a mountain ewe flock at an individual rather than at flock or batch level using PLF technology.
•Precision livestock system targeted approach can be implemented on a mountain sheep farm.•Targeted worming reduces the amount of anthelmintic required without compromising lamb growth.•Precision Livestock Farming did not improve animal (ewe and lamb) performance.•Precision livestock system targeted approach can reduce required on-farm labour by 36%.•Net margin savings between a conventional and a PLF targeted approach can be up to £3/ewe.
This paper sets out to assess stakeholders’ preferences for policy priorities for the management of the hill areas of Scotland, using an adaptive conjoint analysis (ACA) method. The method is used to ...evaluate trade-offs that stakeholders make between policy priorities. A pre-survey was carried out to obtain a large number of defining characteristics of a Scottish hill land system, which were subsequently narrowed down to 20 attributes. A survey was implemented, where a range of stakeholders, who had an interest in the hill and upland areas of Scotland, were asked to select and rank five attributes (out of the 20) that, for them, best described a hill system. They were also asked to describe what constituted both good and poor levels for each of their 5 chosen attributes. A computerised ACA questionnaire was designed, using attributes and levels defined from the previous surveys. Respondents were asked what the policy targets for management choices and options should be in the next 10 years for the Scottish hill areas. Policy simulations were subsequently carried out using the ACA software, to compare stakeholders’ actual preferences with seven different policy profiles, designed to reflect current land use issues and orientations for the Scottish hills.
Findings from the surveys showed the complexity of defining a hill system with a list of specific attributes. The ACA demonstrated that, despite differences between interest group of respondents, livestock was seen to be the most important attribute of a hill system that future policies should target. A local economy based on activities linked to the land was also highly preferred. Differences between respondents reinforced the fact that different interest groups, with different agendas, have views in conflict with others on certain issues. These emphasised how difficult it can be for policy makers to propose rural, environmental and land use policies that suit everybody.
The policy simulation showed that policy profiles focussed on biodiversity and tourism matched the preferences of stakeholders more than policy profiles for forestry and wild land. This demonstrated that trade-offs are necessary when formulating policies and that policy profiles based on a mixture of objectives are preferable to more singular ones. Some of the shortcomings of the methodology, particularly regarding the composition of respondents, are discussed. We conclude by suggesting that the ACA could be a useful tool to explore and evaluate future land use policies, especially in the context of a singular issue or conflict.
In North-western Europe, most of the land mass is classified as Less Favoured Area (LFA) under European designation and hill farms in these areas are a major contributor to the rural industry. ...Scotland alone is no different, as its rural land-based industry is fragile and has been dependent for many decades on high and continued levels of support payments. With recent agricultural policy reforms and changes in support for hill farmers, the future of these farming businesses is uncertain, and one purpose of this paper is to understand how they have already responded and might respond to further policy changes. This is not only important for the land use economy but also for the wider Scottish rural community and environment.
Data from three regions, typical of hill farming areas in mainland Scotland, was collated in 2007; firstly from a postal survey with 47 respondents, followed by 30 face-to-face on-farm interviews. Farmers were asked to consider three time periods (2001–2005; 2005–2007; 2008–2013) and to detail any changes they had made, or planned to make, in their management and livestock numbers. During the interviews, additional questions regarding their motivations, drive and constraints were also asked.
Fifty-three percent of the farmers surveyed had made major management changes in 2001–2005; 49% made changes in 2005–2007 and 53% projected to do so in 2008–2013. The main reported change was a decrease in animal numbers, due to economic factors, such as costs of labour and feed, and loss of subsidies. Multivariate analysis (Principal Coordinate and Cluster Analysis) of the results identified 3 clusters of farmers. Subsequent ANOVA and Chi-square analyses on the clusters showed that age, education, impact on farm labour, and impacts of neighbouring farms and their livestock reductions, were the most important factors that separated these clusters. Cluster 1 (adaptive farmers) broadly represented extensive sheep farms with farmers, who could and did diversify their income; they were also older and had the highest level of education. It was found that their animal management was greatly influenced by their neighbours’ decisions. Cluster 2 (focused farmers) was reflective of relatively more intensive sheep and beef farms, with no direct interest in farm diversification. Cluster 3 (resource constrained farmers) comprised very large extensive sheep and beef farms, which were also limited by their resources. Most ‘adaptive’ and ‘focused’ farmers planned to further modify their management in 2008–2013.
Declining stock numbers in the study farms were consistent with trends in agricultural census data following the latest CAP reforms. However, the typology gave more insight of the differing farmers’ motivation and constraints when faced with reforms; this indicated that policy development should rely on multi-faceted data sources. The interdependency and fragility of these varied hill systems was highlighted by this study, pointing out the value of more targeted delivery of policy mechanisms to reflect such diversity. This is not unique to Scotland and reflects similar experiences elsewhere in Europe's marginal agricultural areas.
The aims of the present study were to quantify hydrogen (H2) and methane (CH4) emissions from beef cattle under different dietary conditions and to assess how cattle genotype and rumen microbial ...community affected these emissions. A total of thirty-six Aberdeen Angus-sired (AAx) and thirty-six Limousin-sired (LIMx) steers were fed two diets with forage:concentrate ratios (DM basis) of either 8:92 (concentrate) or 52:48 (mixed). Each diet was fed to eighteen animals of each genotype. Methane (CH4) and H2 emissions were measured individually in indirect respiration chambers. H2 emissions (mmol/min) varied greatly throughout the day, being highest after feed consumption, and averaged about 0·10 mol H2/mol CH4. Higher H2 emissions (mol/kg DM intake) were recorded in steers fed the mixed diet. Higher CH4 emissions (mol/d and mol/kg DM intake) were recorded in steers fed the mixed diet (P< 0·001); the AAx steers produced more CH4 on a daily basis (mol/d, P< 0·05) but not on a DM intake basis (mol/kg DM intake). Archaea (P= 0·002) and protozoa (P< 0·001) were found to be more abundant and total bacteria (P< 0·001) less abundant (P< 0·001) on feeding the mixed diet. The relative abundance of Clostridium cluster IV was found to be greater (P< 0·001) and that of cluster XIVa (P= 0·025) lower on feeding the mixed diet. The relative abundance of Bacteroides plus Prevotella was greater (P= 0·018) and that of Clostridium cluster IV lower (P= 0·031) in the LIMx steers. There were no significant relationships between H2 emissions and microbial abundance. In conclusion, the rate of H2 production immediately after feeding may lead to transient overloading of methanogenic archaea capacity to use H2, resulting in peaks in H2 emissions from beef cattle.
•Sheep lose significant liveweight during typical on-farm weighing procedures.•Delayed liveweights should be corrected to a liveweight at the time of pre-gather.•Using variably delayed liveweights ...have consequences for management decisions.•Research should state the methodology used to reduce variation in liveweights.
Sheep liveweight and liveweight change are important data both for research and commercial farm management worldwide. However, they can contain errors when procedures in collection are not standardised, including when weighing occurs around other husbandry tasks resulting in varying time delays between removal from grazing and weighing. This research had three stages with different objectives: 1) a liveweight loss study, to quantify liveweight and liveweight change over three and six hours of delay prior to weighing within a handling facility, and to develop a correction equation for delayed liveweights; 2) a validating process, to examine the correction ability of the equation by using it on a different set of delayed liveweights collected under a range of situations; and 3) a management simulation, to explore what impact delayed and corrected delayed liveweights could have when liveweight change was used to assign ewes to feeding levels. Results from each stage showed that: 1) ewes lost a significant amount of liveweight after three (1.8±0.5kg or 3.5±0.8% liveweight) and six (2.9±0.6kg or 5.6±1.0% liveweight) hours delay during a practical handling operation (p <0.001). The following equation was developed to correct delayed liveweights: y=100 (x/(100 + (-0.9301 t+0.07106))) where y, x and t are corrected liveweight (kg), delayed liveweight (kg) and time delayed in decimal hours, respectively; 2) the correction equation provided a more accurate and precise estimate of liveweight than a delayed liveweight alone; and 3) use of delayed liveweights, to determine liveweight change over a two month period, resulted in significantly more animals being assigned wrongly to higher feeding levels (p <0.001), than if the delayed liveweights had been corrected by time elapsed since gathering from grazing fields. To conclude, a short-term delay prior to weighing associated with a practical handling operation significantly reduces the numerical liveweight recorded for each sheep. Using variably delayed liveweights in research and on commercial farms will have significant consequences for research results and management practices globally. Therefore collection of liveweights should occur without delay. However, when this is not feasible delayed liveweights should be corrected and in the absence of locally formulated correction equation, the one presented in this paper could be used.
The hill and mountain areas in Europe are multi-faceted and places of differing and often conflicting land activities. Scotland provides a good example of a well-described history of land uses with ...conflicting provision and management objectives. Using Scotland's hill areas as a case study, the article argues that using a dual interacting dichotomy of 'use' of the land versus 'delight' from the land, and of management for 'a few' towards management for 'the many', could be used to describe and analyse the past and present conflicts over land activities. This article explores the political influences and historic evolution of hill farming and other associated hill land activities or interests, as well as the underlying conflicts that affect them. Most of these conflicts are grounded in historical, political and economic priorities, divergent management objectives and conflicting stakeholders' views. The article further argues that these conflicts could be better understood by an appreciation of the different elements of 'use' and 'delight', and of the different views and uses of interested parties. By asking both 'what is it for?' and 'who is it for?' a dual dichotomy approach was found to be useful to review these intricate issues over time.
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