On March 15, 2020, the Dutch Government implemented COVID-19 lockdown measures. Although self-quarantine and social-distancing measures were implemented, restrictions were less severe compared to ...several other countries. The aim of this study was to assess changes in eating behavior and food purchases among a representative adult sample in the Netherlands (n = 1030), five weeks into lockdown. The results show that most participants did not change their eating behaviors (83.0%) or food purchases (73.3%). However, socio-demographic differences were observed among those that reported changes during lockdown. For example, participants with overweight (OR = 2.26, 95%CI = 1.24–4.11) and obesity (OR = 4.21, 95%CI = 2.13–8.32) were more likely to indicate to eat unhealthier during lockdown compared to participants with a healthy weight. Those with a high educational level (OR = 2.25, 95%-CI = 1.03–4.93) were also more likely to indicate to eat unhealthier during lockdown compared to those with a low educational level. Older participants were more likely to indicate to experience no differences in their eating behaviors compared to those of younger age, who were more likely to indicate that they ate healthier (OR = 1.03, 95%CI = 1.01–1.04) as well as unhealthier (OR = 1.04, 95%CI = 1.02–1.06) during lockdown. Participants with obesity were more likely to indicate to purchase more chips/snacks (OR = 2.79, 95%CI = 1.43–5.45) and more nonalcoholic beverages (OR = 2.74, 95%CI = 1.36–5.50) during lockdown in comparison with those with a healthy weight. Of those that used meal delivery services before, 174 (29.5%) indicated to use meal delivery services more frequently during lockdown. Although the results confirm the persistence of dietary routines, profound socio-demographic differences were observed for those that did report changes. Especially for individuals with overweight and obesity, the lockdown has taken its toll on healthy dietary choices. Further research should unravel underlying mechanisms for these observations.
In this paper, we describe the systematic development and validation of the Multidimensional Internally Regulated Eating Scale (MIRES), a new self-report instrument that quantifies the ...individual-difference characteristics that together shape the inclination towards eating in response to internal bodily sensations of hunger and satiation (i.e., internally regulated eating style). MIRES is a 21-item scale consisting of seven subscales, which have high internal consistency and adequate to high two-week temporal stability. The MIRES model, as tested in community samples from the UK and US, had a very good fit to the data both at the level of individual subscales, but also as a higher-order formative model. High and significant correlations with measures of intuitive eating and eating competence lent support to the convergent validity of MIRES, while its incremental validity in relation to these measures was also upheld. MIRES as a formative construct, as well as all individual subscales, correlated negatively with eating disorder symptomatology and weight-related measures (e.g., BMI, weight cycling) and positively with adaptive behavioral and psychological outcomes (e.g., proactive coping, body appreciation, life satisfaction), supporting the criterion validity of the scale. This endeavor has resulted in a reliable and valid instrument to be used for the thorough assessment of the features that synthesize the profile of those who tend to regulate their eating internally.
Portion sizes of commercially available foods have increased, and there is evidence that exposure to portion sizes recalibrates what is perceived as 'normal' and subsequently, how much food is ...selected and consumed. The present study aims to explore the role of social (descriptive and injunctive) and personal portion size norms in this effect. Across two experiments, participants were either visually exposed to (Study 1,
= 329) or actually served (Study 2,
= 132) a smaller or larger than normal food portion. After 24 h, participants reported their intended consumption (Study 1) or served themselves and consumed (Study 2) a portion of that food and reported perceived portion size norms. In Study 1, visual exposure to portion size did not significantly affect intended consumption and perceived portion size norms. In Study 2, participants consumed a smaller portion of food when they were served a smaller rather than a larger portion the previous day, which was mediated by perceived descriptive and injunctive social (but not personal) portion size norms. Results suggest that being served (but not mere visual exposure to) smaller (relative to larger) portions changes perceived social norms about portion size and this may reduce future consumption of that food.
Objectives
While healthy eating patterns are of high importance in adolescence, most adolescents portray quite unhealthy eating behaviour. One reason for this may be that social norms among peers ...tend to be unsupportive of healthy eating. The current study investigates whether communicating health‐promoting descriptive and injunctive norms influences adolescents' intended and actual fruit consumption.
Design
The study employed an experimental prospective design.
Methods
A norm message manipulation (descriptive vs. injunctive vs. no‐norm control) was administered to high school students, after which fruit intake intention (N = 96) was assessed. At follow‐up, actual fruit intake over 2 days (N = 80) was recorded.
Results
Adolescents receiving the descriptive norm did not report higher fruit intake intentions than the control group, but did consume (borderline, p = .057) significantly more fruit in the following 2 days (2.3 portions per day) than the control condition (1.7 portion per day). Adolescents receiving the injunctive norm reported lower fruit intake intentions than the other two groups, but actual fruit consumption (1.5 portions per day) was similar to that of the control group.
Conclusions
Health‐promoting injunctive norms not only had no positive effects on fruit intake but actually caused a decrease in fruit intake intentions, indicating that injunctive norms may be vulnerable to reactance. A health‐promoting descriptive norm was found to positively affect fruit intake in adolescents. No effect on fruit intake intention was found. Results show that simple single‐sentence norm messages hold the potential to substantially influence health behaviour.
Statement of contribution
What is already known on this subject? Previous research has shown that both descriptive and injunctive norms can influence behaviour. There are indications that for health behaviour specifically, descriptive norms may be more influential than injunctive norms. These previous studies have, however, been cross‐sectional in nature.
What does this study add? The current study demonstrates that a very short and simple norm manipulation has the potential to substantially influence health behaviour. The current study demonstrates that injunctive norm messages have no influence on fruit intake, but a negative influence on fruit intake intentions, pointing to the potential that injunctive norms hold to induce resistance and reactance. The current study demonstrates that descriptive norm messages positively influence fruit intake behaviour, while intentions did not change, pointing to the possibility of descriptive norms functioning as heuristics for behaviour.
This systematic
review aims to assess the role that peer social norms play in shaping young people's food intake, focusing on the important questions of for whom and when peer social norms are ...related to how much young people eat. Thirty-three eligible studies were reviewed (17 correlational, 16 experimental). All but one correlational studies found significant associations between norms and food intake. All experimental studies found effects of norm manipulations on food intake, and some evidence was found of behavioural spillover effects of norms. Four moderators were distilled from our literature synthesis that stipulate for whom and when peer social norms are related to food intake: identification with the norm referent group and eating-related habit strength were found to moderate the effects of social norms on food intake; forceful injunctive norms were found not to be related to food intake; and the influence of norms seemed restricted to types of foods typically consumed in the presence of peers. The findings from this literature synthesis have important implications for research, and moderators are discussed in light of psychological theory. Where applicable, potential implications for the development of social norm-based interventions to improve young people's food intake are also highlighted.
Growing evidence suggests that relative disadvantage is more relevant than absolute socioeconomic factors in explaining disparities in healthfulness of diet. In a series of pre-registered ...experiments, we tested whether personal relative deprivation (PRD), i.e. the sense that one is unfairly deprived of a deserved outcome relative to others, results in choosing more palatable, rewarding foods. Study 1 (N = 102) demonstrated the feasibility and effectiveness of a game for inducing real-time experiences of PRD. Study 2 (N = 287) showed no main effect of PRD condition on hypothetical food choices, but an interaction between chronic PRD and condition revealed that those in the PRD condition chose more rewarding foods when feeling chronically deprived. In Study 3 (N = 260) the hypothesized main effect was found on real, non-hypothetical food choices: those in the PRD condition chose more rewarding foods, controlling for sensitivity to palatable food. Our results provide preliminary indications that the experience of being relatively deprived, rather than the objective amount or resources, may result in a higher preference for high-caloric and palatable foods. It may be suggested that efforts to reduce societal disparities in healthfulness of diet may need to focus on perceptions of injustice beyond objective inequalities.
Human memory appears to prioritise locations of high-calorie foods, likely as an adaptation for foraging within fluctuating ancestral food environments. Importantly, this "high-calorie bias" in human ...spatial memory seems to yield consequences for individual eating behaviour in modern food-abundant settings. However, as studies have mainly been conducted in European (Dutch) populations to date, we investigated whether the existence of the cognitive bias can be reasonably generalised across countries that vary on culturally-relevant domains, such as that of the USA and Japan. Furthermore, we investigated whether sociodemographic factors moderate the expression of the high-calorie spatial memory bias in different populations.
In a cross-cultural online experiment, we measured the food location memory of diverse participants from the USA (N = 72; 44.4% Male; 54 ± 15.99 years) and Japan (N = 74; 56.8% Male; 50.85 ± 17.32 years), using a validated computer-based spatial memory task with standardised images of high-calorie and low-calorie foods. To directly compare the magnitude of the high-calorie spatial memory bias in a broader cultural scope, we also included data from a previous online experiment that identically tested the food spatial memory of a Dutch sample (N = 405; 56.7% Male; 47.57 ± 17.48 years).
In the US sample, individuals more accurately recalled (i.e. had lower pointing errors for) locations of high-calorie foods versus that of low-calorie alternatives (Mean difference = -99.23 pixels, 95% CI = -197.19, -1.28) - regardless of one's hedonic preferences, familiarity with foods, and encoding times. Likewise, individuals in the Japanese sample displayed an enhanced memory for locations of high-calorie (savoury-tasting) foods (Mean difference = -40.41 pixels, 95% CI = -76.14, -4.68), while controlling for the same set of potential confounders. The magnitude of the high-calorie bias in spatial memory was similar across populations (i.e. the USA, Japan, and the Netherlands), as well as across diverse sociodemographic groups within a population.
Our results demonstrate that the high-calorie bias in spatial memory transcends sociocultural boundaries. Since the cognitive bias may negatively impact on our dietary decisions, it would be wise to invest in strategies that intervene on our seemingly universal ability to efficiently locate calorie-rich foods.
The growing number of community-dwelling older adults and the increased risks of adverse health events that accompany ageing, call for health promotion interventions. Nurses often lead these ...interventions. The views and experiences of older adults participating in these interventions have rarely been studied. To understand the views of targeted older adults, qualitative studies are essential. The aim of this study was to investigate the views and experiences of older adults on their participation in a nurse-led intervention, taking into account their views on healthy aging.
In a qualitative study, nineteen Dutch older adults aged 62 to 92 years participated in semi-structured interviews. These were transcribed verbatim and coded with the Qualitative Data Analysis Miner software program. The Qualitative Analysis Guide of Leuven was used for data analysis.
Based on the analysis of the interviews, the following main themes emerged from the data reflecting the experiences of the participants: 1) awareness of aging, 2) experienced interaction with the nurse, and 3) perception of the consultations as a check-up and/or personal support.
This study underscores the importance of nurse-led interventions that match older adults' personal views concerning healthy living, and their views and experiences concerning these interventions. Older adults' holistic views of healthy living were not always assessed and valued by the nurses. Also, our study shows a wide variety of expectations, views and experiences among the participating older adults. This implies that health professionals should adjust their working and communication methods to the older adult's views on life.
Background
The experience of scarcity provides an explanation for the relatively unhealthy diets of people with low income. Causal evidence for an effect of direct experiences of scarcity on eating ...behaviour is lacking.
Methods
Two studies (N = 81, N = 115) tested and refined a self‐developed trade‐off task, in which participants' resources were restricted (scarcity condition) or unrestricted (no‐scarcity condition), for manipulating experiences of scarcity. Two further studies (N = 95, N = 122) were performed to test whether scarcity results in greater calorie consumption from snacks and lower self‐reported self‐regulation of eating.
Results
The scarcity manipulation appeared successful. A significant main effect of scarcity on eating was not found; however, an interaction effect between hunger and scarcity bordered on significance, such that those in the scarcity condition consumed more calories under low hunger. In the second experiment, participants were instructed to eat prior to participation to lower their hunger level. No difference between conditions was found in calorie consumption and self‐regulation of eating.
Conclusion
Although the trade‐off task appeared to evoke scarcity experiences, the present research could not support the notion that these result in unhealthier eating. A more nuanced view of the influence of scarcity on eating is needed.
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