This article introduces the situational theory of problem solving (theory of problem solving) as an extended and generalized version of the situational theory of publics (theory of publics). The ...theory of problem solving introduces a new concept, communicative action in problem solving, as its dependent variable. To explain communicative action, the theory of problem solving refines the independent variables of the theory of publics: problem recognition, constraint recognition, involvement recognition, and referent criterion. Finally, it introduces a new variable: situational motivation in problem solving. The new motivational variable mediates the effects of antecedent perceptual variables on communicative behavior. We report the supporting evidence for theoretical propositions of the new theory based on structural equation modeling (SEM) testing using survey data.
We conceptualize two cognitive modi operandi by which lay individuals (cf. experts) solve everyday life problems: cognitive retrogression and cognitive progression. The key demarcation between these ...two strategies is when a conclusion is finalized and how one’s cognitive and communicative efforts are expended in a problematic situation. Using these two concepts of cognitive strategies in problem solving, we explicate the emerging processes of cognitive arrest and epistemic inertia in the digital age and changing information environment. We apply the cognitive and communicative account to an exemplary case of cognitive arrest among lay publics: that of conspiracism and close-mindedness.
This article traces the origins and continuing development of a research tradition that conceptualizes public relations as a strategic management function rather than as a messaging, publicity, and ...media relations function. The tradition began serendipitously with the development of the situational theory of publics in the late 1960s, followed by the application of organization theory to public relations, the symmetrical model of public relations, and evaluation of communication programs. The Excellence study, which began in 1985, brought these middle-level theories together and produced a general theory, a theoretical edifice, focused on the role of public relations in strategic management and the value of relationships with strategic publics to an organization. Since the completion of the Excellence study, scholars in this research tradition have continued to improve and furnish the edifice by conducting research to help public relations professionals participate in strategic decision processes. This research has been on environmental scanning and publics, scenario building, empowerment of public relelations, ethics, relationships, return on investment (ROI), evaluation, relationship cultivation strategies, specialized areas of public relations, and global strategy. I conclude that the greatest challenge for scholars now is to learn how to institutionalize strategic public relations as an ongoing, accepted practice in most organizations.
La comunicación en las organizaciones está afectada por variables tanto internas como externas a la organización, como la cultura, la estructura y la gestión organizativa. Algunos de los resultados ...del Excellence Study discutidos en el presente artículo evidencian que el valor de las relaciones públicas se crea en los relacionamientos que las organizaciones desarrollan con los públicos, especialmente con aquellos que se ubican en el interior mismo de la empresa.
This article reviews the evolution of public relations from its pre-science period to the present-day using Thomas Kuhn’s theory of scientific development. The review discusses how public relations ...scholarship has grown and reached scientific maturity, in parallel with the institutionalization of public relations’ professional practice and higher education. This article highlights the evolving nature of the discipline, including the paradigmatic shift toward a multifunctional definition of public relations and focus on relationship theories, ethics, public behavior, and technology.
The multifaceted roles of public relations are not well-understood in strategic management. Thus, this study reviews strategic management literature and presents empirical evidence on the relevance ...of public relations to strategic management. Using data collected from public relations practitioners and organizational leaders in the Generally Accepted Practice (GAP) survey conducted by the University of Southern California (USC) and the Excellence Study commissioned by the International Association of Business Communicators (IABC) Research Foundation, the dynamics between the public relations function and organizational outcomes (i.e., corporate strategic orientation and corporate legitimacy performance) are explored. The findings present new empirical evidence of the contributions that public relations makes to strategic management (i.e., its value), the conditions under which public relations makes more contributions to strategic management (i.e., its empowerment) and the differences between marketing-dominant and public relations-independent communication departments in terms of their focus and effects on organizational outcomes (i.e., its structure). The relevance of the findings to the strategic management role of public relations today is discussed.
Research over the years using Grunig's situational theory has identified hot-issue publics along with active, aware, latent, and nonpublics. Hot-issue publics typically communicate actively only ...about a single problem that involves nearly everyone in the population and that has received extensive media coverage. Hot-issue publics tend to emerge when a triggering event occurs, such as an accident, crisis, or media controversy. Hot-issue publics, however, tend to dissipate after media coverage of the problem subsides. This study addresses the extent to which organizations need relationships with hot-issue publics or whether they need only to address media coverage of a crisis at the time it occurs. More than 90 qualitative interviews were conducted over several years with individuals about a number of hot issues. Results suggest that most hot-issue publics do not become active publics but that they remain aware after the problem gets less attention. Thus, organizations need to use principles of crisis communication to cultivate a short-term relationship with hot-issue publics and to continue a longer-term relationship with the now more aware public.
This article proposes a new concept about communication behaviors related to problem solving. Communicative action is epiphenomenal to problem solving: As problem solvers, members of a public use ...communication as an instrument to cope with their problematic life situations. A good theoretical description of the communicative features of problem solving, therefore, is critical to understanding the social phenomena related to the development and behavior of publics. In existing literature, however, communication behaviors are conceptualized mostly as acts of information acquisition with little regard to other communicative actions such as information transmission. In this article, we propose a new model, communicative action in problem solving, which encompasses broader aspects of communication behaviors related to a problematic life situation: information acquisition, information selection, and information transmission. We then test the reliability and validity of the new construct for one personal and two social problems. Finally, we discuss the theoretical and practical implications of the new concept for public relations research and practice.
The purpose of this study is to decompose common reputation measurement systems into behavioural organisation–public relationship outcomes, cognitive representations of an organisation in the minds ...of publics and evaluations of organisational performance. In the proposed model, propensity for active communication behaviour and familiarity are suggested as correlated precursors of organisation–public relationship outcomes (eg trust, satisfaction, commitment and control mutuality) and organisation–public relationship outcomes are hypothesised to have a direct effect on evaluations of organisational performance as well as an indirect effect via the mediation of cognitive representations of the organisation. The authors investigated different types of five Korean‐based organisations )two domestic corporations in different industries, a multinational corporation, a sports association and a non‐profit organisation) to validate the model across different types of organisations. The findings of this study suggest that relationship outcomes lead to favourable representations of an organisation and positive evaluations of performance of the organisation.
In the 1960s, I conducted two studies of large landowners and peasant farmers in Colombia. After 61 years in the profession, I see the theme of those studies and most of my subsequent research to be ...public relations as a means of social inclusion: allowing individuals and groups to take part in society. This essay describes social inclusion and public relations theories of publics, symmetrical communication, strategic management, and relationships. The essay concludes by discussing digital media as both a tool of inclusion and de facto social exclusion.
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