Anthocyanins are polyphenol compounds that render various hues of pink, red, purple, and blue in flowers, vegetables, and fruits. Anthocyanins also play significant roles in plant propagation, ...ecophysiology, and plant defense mechanisms. Structurally, anthocyanins are anthocyanidins modified by sugars and acyl acids. Anthocyanin colors are susceptible to pH, light, temperatures, and metal ions. The stability of anthocyanins is controlled by various factors, including inter and intramolecular complexations. Chromatographic and spectrometric methods have been extensively used for the extraction, isolation, and identification of anthocyanins. Anthocyanins play a major role in the pharmaceutical; nutraceutical; and food coloring, flavoring, and preserving industries. Research in these areas has not satisfied the urge for natural and sustainable colors and supplemental products. The lability of anthocyanins under various formulated conditions is the primary reason for this delay. New gene editing technologies to modify anthocyanin structures in vivo and the structural modification of anthocyanin via semi-synthetic methods offer new opportunities in this area. This review focusses on the biogenetics of anthocyanins; their colors, structural modifications, and stability; their various applications in human health and welfare; and advances in the field.
•A green extraction method with NADES was applied to the extraction of anthocyanins.•Extraction profiles of NADES was compared with organic solvents using HPLC and multivariate data analysis.•NADES ...showed own extraction features of anthocyanins compared with organic solvents.•NADES enhance the stability of anthocyanins.
Natural deep eutectic solvents (NADES) have attracted a great deal of attention in recent times as promising green media. They are generally composed of neutral, acidic or basic compounds that form liquids of high viscosity when mixed in certain molar ratio. Despite their potential, viscosity and acid or basic nature of some ingredients may affect the extraction capacity and stabilizing ability of the target compounds. To investigate these effects, extraction with a series of NADES was employed for the analysis of anthocyanins in flower petals of Catharanthus roseus in combination with HPLC-DAD-based metabolic profiling. Along with the extraction yields of anthocyanins their stability in NADES was also studied. Multivariate data analysis indicates that the lactic acid–glucose (LGH), and 1,2-propanediol–choline chloride (PCH) NADES present a similar extraction power for anthocyanins as conventional organic solvents. Furthermore, among the NADES employed, LGH exhibits an at least three times higher stabilizing capacity for cyanidins than acidified ethanol, which facilitates their extraction and analysis process. Comparing NADES to the conventional organic solvents, in addition to their reduced environmental impact, they proved to provide higher stability for anthocyanins, and therefore have a great potential as possible alternatives to those organic solvents in health related areas such as food, pharmaceuticals and cosmetics.
Anthocyanins are important health-promoting pigments that make a major contribution to the quality of fruits. The biosynthetic pathway leading to anthocyanins is well known and the key regulatory ...genes controlling the pathway have been isolated in many species. Recently, a considerable amount of new information has been gathered on the developmental and environmental regulation of anthocyanin biosynthesis in fruits, specifically the impact of regulation through light. New discoveries have begun to reveal links between the developmental regulatory network and the specific regulators of anthocyanin biosynthesis during fruit ripening. In this opinion article, a simplified model for the different regulatory networks involved with anthocyanin production in fruit is proposed.
Anthocyanins are considered as the largest group of water-soluble pigments found in the vacuole of plant cells, displaying range of colors from pink, orange, red, purple and blue. They belong to ...flavonoids, a polyphenolic subgroup. Application of anthocyanins in food systems as natural food colourants is limited due to the lack of stability under different environmental conditions such as light, pH, heat etc. Anthocyanins esterified with one or more acid groups are referred as acylated anthocyanins. Based on the presence or absence of acyl group, anthocyanins are categorized as acylated and nonacylated anthocyanins. Acylated anthocyanins are further classified as mono, di, tri, tetra acylated anthocyanins according to the number of acyl groups present in the anthocyanin. This review classifies common anthocyanin sources into non-acylated, mono-, di-, tri- and tetra-acylated anthocyanins based on the major anthocyanins present in these sources. The relative stabilities of these anthocyanins with respect to thermal, pH and photo stress in beverage systems are specifically discussed. Common anthocyanin sources such as elderberry, blackberry, and blackcurrant mainly contain nonacylated anthocyanins. Red radish, purple corn, black carrot also mainly contain mono acylated anthocyanins. Red cabbage and purple sweet potato have both mono and diacylated anthocyanins. Poly acylated anthocyanins show relatively higher stability compared with nonacylated and monoacylated anthocyanins. Several techniques such as addition of sweeteners, co-pigmentation and acylation techniques could enhance the stability of nonacylated anthocyanins. Flowers are main sources of polyacylated anthocyanins having higher stability, yet they have not been commercially exploited for their anthocyanins.
Scope
Gut barrier dysfunction and inflammation originating from a dysbiotic gut microbiota (GM) are strongly associated with a high‐fat diet (HFD). Anthocyanins from Lycium ruthenicum (ACs) show ...antiobesity effects through modulating the GM. However, the mechanism linking the antiobesity effects of ACs and GM modulation remains obscure.
Methods and results
To investigate the ameliorative effects of ACs on colonic barrier dysfunction and inflammation, mice are fed an HFD with or without ACs at doses of 50, 100, and 200 mg kg−1 for 12 weeks. AC supplementation reduced weight gain, enriched short‐chain fatty acid (SCFA)‐producing bacteria (e.g., Ruminococcaceae, Muribaculaceae, Akkermansia, Ruminococcaceae_UCG‐014, and Bacteroides) and SCFA content, depleted endotoxin‐producing bacteria (e.g., Helicobacter and Desulfovibrionaceae), and decreased endotoxin (i.e., lipopolysaccharide) levels. SCFAs substantially activated G protein‐coupled receptors (GPRs), inhibited histone deacetylases (HDAC), increased intestinal tight junction mRNA and protein expression levels, reduced intestinal permeability, and protected intestinal barrier integrity in HFD‐induced mice. These effects mitigate intestinal inflammation by inhibiting the LPS/NF‐κB/TLR4 pathway.
Conclusion
These data indicates that ACs can mitigate colonic barrier dysfunction and inflammation, induce SCFA production and inhibit endotoxin production by modulating the GM in HFD‐fed mice. This finding provides a clue for understanding the antiobesity effects of ACs.
Lycium ruthenicum anthocyanins reduce weight gain; improve HFD‐induced gut microbiota dysbiosis; significantly enrich short‐chain fatty acid (SCFA)‐producing bacteria, SCFA content, and SCFA receptor expression; and decrease endotoxin‐producing bacteria and endotoxin levels in the gut of high‐fat diet‐induced mice. Increasing SCFAs and reducing endotoxins inhibit LPS/TLR4/NF‐κB activation and increase colonic barrier function at the mRNA and protein levels after AC administration.
Cardiovascular diseases (CVD) are an important cause of death worldwide. Anthocyanins are a subgroup of flavonoids found in berries, flowers, fruits and leaves. In epidemiological and clinical ...studies, these polyphenols have been associated with improved cardiovascular risk profiles as well as decreased comorbidities. Human intervention studies using berries, vegetables, parts of plants and cereals (either fresh or as juice) or purified anthocyanin-rich extracts have demonstrated significant improvements in low density lipoproteins oxidation, lipid peroxidation, total plasma antioxidant capacity, and dyslipidemia as well as reduced levels of CVD molecular biomarkers. This review discusses the use of anthocyanins in animal models and their applications in human medicine, as dietary supplements or as new potent drugs against cardiovascular disease.
Abstract
Anthocyanins are a subgroup of flavonoids responsible for the blue, purple, and red color of many fruits, flowers, and leaves. Consumption of foods rich in anthocyanins has been associated ...with a reduced risk of cardiovascular disease and cancer. The fate of anthocyanins after oral administration follows a unique pattern rather different from those of other flavonoids. Anthocyanins could be absorbed from the stomach as well as intestines. Active transporters may play a role in the absorption of anthocyanins from the stomach as well as in their transfer within the kidney or liver. Anthocyanins such as cyanidin-3-glucoside and pelargonidin-3-glucoside could be absorbed in their intact form into the gastrointestinal wall; undergo extensive first-pass metabolism; and enter the systemic circulation as metabolites. Phenolic acid metabolites were found in the blood stream in much higher concentrations than their parent compounds. These metabolites could be responsible for the health benefits associated with anthocyanins. Some anthocyanins can reach the large intestine in significant amounts and undergo decomposition catalyzed by microbiota. In turn, these decomposition products may contribute to the health effects associated with anthocyanins in the large intestine. This review comprehensively summarizes the existing knowledge about absorption, distribution, metabolism, and elimination of anthocyanins as well as their decomposition within the gastrointestinal lumen.
Anthocyanins are one of the six subgroups of large and widespread group of plant constituents known as flavonoids. These are responsible for the bright and attractive orange, red, purple, and blue ...colors of most fruits, vegetables, flowers and some cereal grains. More than 600 structurally distinct anthocyanins have been identified in nature. Earlier, anthocyanins were only known for their coloring properties but now interest in anthocyanin pigments has intensified because of their possible health benefits as dietary antioxidants, which help to prevent neuronal diseases, cardiovascular illnesses, cancer, diabetes, inflammation, and many such others diseases. Ability of anthocyanins to counter oxidants makes them atherosclerosis fighters. Therefore, anthocyanin-rich foods may help to boost overall health by offering an array of nutrients. However, the incorporation of anthocyanins into food and medical products is a challenging task due to their low stability toward environmental conditions during processing and storage. Encapsulation seems to be an efficient way to introduce such compounds into these products. Encapsulating agents act as a protector coat against ambient adverse conditions such as light, humidity, and oxygen. Encapsulated bioactive compounds are easier to handle and offer improved stability. The main objective of this review is to explore health benefits of anthocyanins and their extraction, characterization, encapsulation, and delivery.
Evidence suggests that the consumption of anthocyanin-rich foods beneficially affects cardiovascular health; however, the absorption, distribution, metabolism, and elimination (ADME) of ...anthocyanin-rich foods are relatively unknown.
We investigated the ADME of a (13)C5-labeled anthocyanin in humans.
Eight male participants consumed 500 mg isotopically labeled cyanidin-3-glucoside (6,8,10,3',5'-(13)C5-C3G). Biological samples were collected over 48 h, and (13)C and (13)C-labeled metabolite concentrations were measured by using isotope-ratio mass spectrometry and liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry.
The mean ± SE percentage of (13)C recovered in urine, breath, and feces was 43.9 ± 25.9% (range: 15.1-99.3% across participants). The relative bioavailability was 12.38 ± 1.38% (5.37 ± 0.67% excreted in urine and 6.91 ± 1.59% in breath). Maximum rates of (13)C elimination were achieved 30 min after ingestion (32.53 ± 14.24 μg(13)C/h), whereas (13)C-labeled metabolites peaked (maximum serum concentration: 5.97 ± 2.14 μmol/L) at 10.25 ± 4.14 h. The half-life for (13)C-labeled metabolites ranged between 12.44 ± 4.22 and 51.62 ± 22.55 h. (13)C elimination was greatest between 0 and 1 h for urine (90.30 ± 15.28 μg/h), at 6 h for breath (132.87 ± 32.23 μg/h), and between 6 and 24 h for feces (557.28 ± 247.88 μg/h), whereas the highest concentrations of (13)C-labeled metabolites were identified in urine (10.77 ± 4.52 μmol/L) and fecal samples (43.16 ± 18.00 μmol/L) collected between 6 and 24 h. Metabolites were identified as degradation products, phenolic, hippuric, phenylacetic, and phenylpropenoic acids.
Anthocyanins are more bioavailable than previously perceived, and their metabolites are present in the circulation for ≤48 h after ingestion. This trial was registered at clinicaltrials.gov as NCT01106729.
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