The Yanhu area in the northern Lhasa subterrane exposes diverse rock types including basalts, rhyolites, quartz dioritic porphyries, and associated dioritic enclaves. The basalts and rhyolites occur ...as a bimodal volcanic suite, and the quartz dioritic porphyries intrude into the older basalts as a small apophysis. In this paper, we report for the first time the zircon LA-ICP-MS U–Pb age and Hf isotopic composition data, whole-rock major and trace element composition data, and Sr–Nd isotopic data from the diverse Early Cretaceous magmatic rocks from Yanhu. The three basalt samples that we dated yielded zircon U–Pb ages of 110±0.7Ma, 108.9±1.1Ma, and 111.8±3.2Ma. The zircons from one quartz diorite porphyry yielded an age of 109.7±0.8Ma, which is coeval with the dioritic enclave (110.4±1.4Ma). The basalts show a high-K calc-alkaline signature, enriched in Rb, Th, U, and light rare earth elements (REEs) and depleted in Nb, Ta, Ti, Zr, and Hf. These rocks possess varying whole-rock εNd(t) (−0.6 to +2.1) and zircon εHf(t) (+0.6 to +8.9) values. The rhyolite samples are high-K calc-alkaline and are metaluminous to slightly peraluminous. These rocks yielded whole-rock εNd(t) of +0.1 to +0.9 and zircon εHf(t) of +5.1 to +12.4. The quartz dioritic porphyries are characterized by high Al2O3 content (15.9–16.1wt.%), high Sr (466–556ppm), low Yb (1.36–1.41ppm), and low Y (13.8ppm) abundances. Similar geochemical signatures are also present in the dioritic enclaves, revealing that both the quartz dioritic porphyries and the dioritic enclaves have an affinity with adakitic rocks. Moreover, the host rocks and the enclaves display homogeneous εNd(t) (+3.5 to +3.6 and +3.4 to +4.0, respectively) and zircon εHf(t) values (+12.4 to +16.9 and +11.5 to +15.7, respectively). Our geochemical data indicate that the magmatic rocks from Yanhu were derived from the partial melting of distinct source regions, i.e., a heterogeneous metasomatized mantle wedge source for basalts, a juvenile crust source for rhyolites, and a thickened mafic lower crust source that mixed with basaltic magmas for the adakitic rocks (including quartz dioritic porphyries and dioritic enclaves). Compared to typical arc basalts, the basalts from Yanhu are relatively enriched with high field strength elements (HFSEs) (e.g., Zr, Nb), resembling those of within-plate basalts elsewhere. In combination with the presence of a coeval bimodal volcanic rock suite, the ca. 110Ma magmatism in Yanhu is inferred to have occurred in an extensional setting. Our new data, together with recently published data, enable us to correlate the generation of the compositional diversity of the ca. 110Ma Yanhu magmatic rocks that formed in an extensional setting to the slab break-off during the southward subduction of the Bangong–Nujiang Ocean lithosphere. The presence of basaltic magmatism and coeval silicic magmatic rocks with positive zircon εHf(t) indicate that the extensive magmatism at ca. 110Ma have contributed significantly to the crustal growth of the northern Lhasa subterrane.
► Compositionally diverse magmatism was synchronously emplaced at ca. 110Ma. ► Basalts originated from a heterogeneous mantle source modified by subduction process in an extensional setting. ► Adakitic rocks resulted from magma mixing between the melts from thickened lower crust and mantle-derived basaltic magmas. ► Diverse magmatism witnessed the slab break-off of the southward Bangong–Nujiang Ocean lithosphere subduction. ► Extensive magmatism of ca. 110Ma contributed to the crustal growth of the northern Lhasa subterrane.
Integration of lithostratigraphic, magmatic, and metamorphic data from the Lhasa–Qiangtang collision zone in central Tibet (including the Bangong suture zone and adjacent regions of the Lhasa and ...Qiangtang terranes) indicates assembly through divergent double sided subduction. This collision zone is characterized by the absence of Early Cretaceous high-grade metamorphic rocks and the presence of extensive magmatism with enhanced mantle contributions at ca. 120–110Ma. Two Jurassic–Cretaceous magmatic arcs are identified from the Caima–Duobuza–Rongma–Kangqiong–Amdo magmatic belt in the western Qiangtang Terrane and from the Along Tso–Yanhu–Daguo–Baingoin–Daru Tso magmatic belt in the northern Lhasa Terrane. These two magmatic arcs reflect northward and southward subduction of the Bangong Ocean lithosphere, respectively. Available multidisciplinary data reconcile that the Bangong Ocean may have closed during the Late Jurassic–Early Cretaceous (most likely ca. 140–130Ma) through arc–arc “soft” collision rather than continent–continent “hard” collision. Subduction zone retreat associated with convergence beneath the Lhasa Terrane may have driven its rifting and separation from the northern margin of Gondwana leading to its accretion within Asia.
•Two magmatic arcs on the opposing overriding Lhasa and Qiangtang terranes•Extensive 120–110Ma magmatism with enhanced mantle contributions•Absence of Early Cretaceous high-grade metamorphic rocks•Divergent double-sided subduction of the Bangong oceanic lithosphere
The timing of the north‐south collision between two terranes can be determined by the overlap of their paleolatitudes or the change of their convergence rate. For example, the overlapping ...paleolatitudes of the Lhasa terrane and Tethyan Himalaya and the dramatic decrease in the velocity of the Indian plate are usually ascribed to the India‐Asia collision at ~55 Ma. However, little is known about the paleolatitudinal evolution and velocity change of the Lhasa terrane resulting from the Lhasa‐Qiangtang collision during the Jurassic‐Cretaceous period. To better constrain the velocity change of the Lhasa terrane during this period, to constrain when and where the Lhasa‐Qiangtang collision occurred, and to assess the distribution of land and sea in the Tethyan realm, we provide a high‐quality Cretaceous paleomagnetic pole obtained from the limestone from the western part of the Lhasa terrane, which yields a paleolatitude of ~16.8° ± 1.9°N for the sampling area (32.2°N, 80.8°E) during the time interval of ~113–72 Ma. We compile existing paleomagnetic results from the Lhasa terrane, Qiangtang terrane, Tethyan Himalaya, and India and reveal that the Lhasa‐Qiangtang collision most likely occurred at or near the J/K boundary at ~19°N for the reference point at (32°N, 88°E) and that the Neo‐Tethys reached its maximum width (≥~7450 km) during this period.
Key Points
The Shiquanhe sampling area was located at ~16.8° ± 1.9°N at ~113‐72 Ma
The Lhasa‐Qiangtang collision most likely occurred at ~19°N at or near the J/K boundary
The Neo‐Tethys reached its maximum width (≥~7450 km) during this period
Voluminous Early Cretaceous volcanic rocks from the northern and central Lhasa subterranes contain important information on the tectono-magmatic processes. In this contribution, we focus on the Lower ...Cretaceous volcanic rocks in the Nagqu area, northern Lhasa subterrane, and present their zircon LA-ICP-MS U–Pb ages, in situ Hf isotopic data, whole-rock major and trace element compositions, and Sr–Nd isotopic data. The Nagqu volcanic rocks are high-K calc-alkaline to shoshonitic (K2O: 1.41–8.52wt.%; K2O/Na2O: 0.36–6.65) and feature similar geochemical characteristics (e.g., subparallel distribution of incompatible elements and REEs). Assimilation–fractional crystallization of magmas from identical source (rather than diverse magma sources) was mainly responsible for the formation of the diverse volcanic rock types. High Hf/Sm (>0.7) and high U/Yb whole-rock values and low Y values in zircon grains suggest the involvement of terrigenous components rather than subducted oceanic crust in the magma source. Tectonic discrimination diagrams, sedimentary environment (marine–continental transition), magma compositions (K-rich and terrigenous components), crustal thickening, and spatio-temporal variations in subduction, syn-collisional and post-collisional processes, indicate that the geodynamic setting of the Early Cretaceous magmatism was associated with the collision between the Lhasa and Qiangtang terranes. The high-K characteristics were inherited from the melts derived from the partial melting of lower metasomatized lithospheric mantle (the K-rich layer), which was transported to great depths by the continuously thickening lithosphere, eventually triggering melting.
Display omitted
•Nagqu volcanic rocks belong to high-K calc-alkaline to shoshonitic series.•Volcanic rocks originated from a similar magma source experiencing AFC processes.•Magmatism was associated with the Lhasa–Qiangtang syn-collisional setting.
Different hypotheses have been proposed for the origin and pre-Cenozoic evolution of the Tibetan Plateau as a result of several collision events between a series of Gondwana-derived terranes (e.g., ...Qiangtang, Lhasa and India) and Asian continent since the early Paleozoic. This paper reviews and reevaluates these hypotheses in light of new data from Tibet including (1) the distribution of major tectonic boundaries and suture zones, (2) basement rocks and their sedimentary covers, (3) magmatic suites, and (4) detrital zircon constraints from Paleozoic metasedimentary rocks. The Western Qiangtang, Amdo, and Tethyan Himalaya terranes have the Indian Gondwana origin, whereas the Lhasa Terrane shows an Australian Gondwana affinity. The Cambrian magmatic record in the Lhasa Terrane resulted from the subduction of the proto-Tethyan Ocean lithosphere beneath the Australian Gondwana. The newly identified late Devonian granitoids in the southern margin of the Lhasa Terrane may represent an extensional magmatic event associated with its rifting, which ultimately resulted in the opening of the Songdo Tethyan Ocean. The Lhasa−northern Australia collision at ~263Ma was likely responsible for the initiation of a southward-dipping subduction of the Bangong-Nujiang Tethyan Oceanic lithosphere. The Yarlung-Zangbo Tethyan Ocean opened as a back-arc basin in the late Triassic, leading to the separation of the Lhasa Terrane from northern Australia. The subsequent northward subduction of the Yarlung-Zangbo Tethyan Ocean lithosphere beneath the Lhasa Terrane may have been triggered by the Qiangtang–Lhasa collision in the earliest Cretaceous. The mafic dike swarms (ca. 284Ma) in the Western Qiangtang originated from the Panjal plume activity that resulted in continental rifting and its separation from the northern Indian continent. The subsequent collision of the Western Qiangtang with the Eastern Qiangtang in the middle Triassic was followed by slab breakoff that led to the exhumation of the Qiangtang metamorphic rocks. This collision may have caused the northward subduction initiation of the Bangong-Nujiang Ocean lithosphere beneath the Western Qiangtang. Collision-related coeval igneous rocks occurring on both sides of the suture zone and the within-plate basalt affinity of associated mafic lithologies suggest slab breakoff-induced magmatism in a continent−continent collision zone. This zone may be the site of net continental crust growth, as exemplified by the Tibetan Plateau.
Display omitted
► Reevaluating the origin and evolution of the Tibetan Plateau. ► Presenting a synthetic model for the pre-Cenozoic evolution of the Tibetan Plateau. ► Interpreting the coeval magmatism occurring on both sides of a suture in a collision zone as a result of slab breakoff.
The Lhasa Terrane in southern Tibet is an ideal region to investigate the geodynamic processes of magmatism in relation to slab breakoff. Here we report zircon SHRIMP U–Pb ages and Hf-isotopes, and ...whole-rock geochemical data from the late Early Cretaceous magmatic rocks around Xainza. The rocks analyzed in this study include basalts, andesites, dacites, and rhyolites from the south of Xainza in the central Lhasa subterrane and the coeval rhyolites in Daguo from the north of Xainza in the northern Lhasa subterrane. The zircon U–Pb data indicate that the Xainza dacites and the Daguo rhyolites erupted contemporaneously at ca. 116Ma, approximately coeval with the Xainza basalts as judged from an adjacent volcanic sequence with systematic compositional change with time. The Xainza basalts are calc-alkaline and display geochemical signatures comparable to those of within-plate basalts rather than typical arc-type basalts. The Xainza andesites and dacites are high-K calc-alkaline and metaluminous to slightly peraluminous. The Daguo rhyolites belong to high-K calc-alkaline–shoshonite and are mostly strongly peraluminous. The whole-rock εNd(t) of the Xainza basalts (−3.5 to 0.6) is markedly different from those of the Xainza andesites (−13.6 to −13.0) and dacites (−9.4 to −9.1). The Daguo rhyolites are high-K calc-alkaline–shoshonite and peraluminous and display geochemical signatures similar to highly fractionated A2-type silicic rocks. Zircons from a rhyolite from Daguo yield εHf(t) values of −1.1 to +4.6, significantly different from those of the Xainza dacites (−8.2 to −4.4). The Xainza basalts are most likely derived from partial melting of an enriched mantle wedge that was metasomatized by subduction-related components, accompanied with significant contributions from subslab asthenospheric mantle. The andesites are generated from partial melting of an ancient lower crust, whereas the dacites are interpreted as the consequences of varying degrees of interaction between the mature Lhasa basement (Al-rich) and mantle-derived melts. The Daguo rhyolites are derived from partial melting of a juvenile crust and experienced significant fractional crystallization. In combination with the other existing data, we suggest that the generation of the ca. 113Ma magmatic rocks around Xainza is most likely triggered by the slab breakoff of the southward subducting Bangong–Nujiang Tethyan Ocean lithosphere. The geological records of the Lhasa–Qiangtang collision zone, particularly the presence of mafic rocks showing within-plate basalt geochemistry, A2-type silicic rocks, and coeval bimodal volcanic rocks in a continent–continent collision zone suggest a petrological association diagnostic of slab breakoff setting.
Display omitted
•Synchronous magmatism of ca. 113Ma around Xainza, central Tibet•Within-plate chemical signatures of basalts and coeval A2-type rhyolites•Subslab asthenosphere- and subarc mantle wedge-derived hybrid basaltic magmas•Magmatic response to slab breakoff in a continent–continent collision zone
Bulk-rock major and trace element, Sr–Nd–Hf isotope, zircon U–Pb age, and zircon Hf isotopic data of the Late Cretaceous Zhuogapu volcanic rocks in the northern Lhasa subterrane provide a new insight ...into tectonic processes following the collision of the terrane with the Qiangtang zone. SHRIMP zircon U–Pb dating reveals that the Zhuogapu volcanic rocks crystallized at ca. 91Ma, postdating the development of a regional angular unconformity between the Upper Cretaceous and the underlying strata in the Lhasa–Qiangtang collision zone. Compared to the Andean arc-type andesites and dacites, the Zhuogapu volcanic rocks are characterized by higher MgO of 2.78–5.86wt.% and Mg# of 54–64 for andesites and MgO of 2.30–2.61wt.% and Mg# of 55–58 for dacites. Eight andesite samples have whole-rock (87Sr/86Sr)i of 0.7054–0.7065, εNd(t) of −3.2 to −1.7, and εHf(t) of +3.8–+6.4, similar to those of the three dacite samples with (87Sr/86Sr)i=0.7056–0.7060, εNd(t) of −2.7 to −2.2, and εHf(t) of +5.6–+7.0. Thirteen analyses from a dacite sample give positive zircon εHf(t) of +5.6 to +8.7. These signatures indicate that the Zhuogapu Mg-rich andesites were most likely derived from partial melting of a delaminated mafic lower crust (including the lowermost crust straddling the northern and central Lhasa subterranes) that led to the generation of the Zhuogapu primary melts with adakitic signatures and small negative εNd(t). Such melts subsequently experienced interaction of melt-asthenospheric mantle peridotite followed by the modification of highly fractionated magmas in shallow crustal magma chamber. Hornblende-controlled fractionation results in the change of geochemical composition from Mg-rich andesitic to Mg-rich dacitic magmas. Field observations, together with geochronological and geochemical data, indicate that the Zhuogapu Mg-rich volcanic rocks and coeval magmatism in the northern Lhasa subterrane may be the result of thickened lithospheric delamination following the final Lhasa–Qiangtang amalgamation.
•Identifying the presence of ca. 90MaMg-rich volcanic rocks•Providing a complex but very likely petrogenetic explanation•Indicative of the delamination of a thickened lithosphere
The Lhasa Terrane in southern Tibet has long been accepted as the last geological block accreted to Eurasia before its collision with the northward drifting Indian continent in the Cenozoic, but its ...lithospheric architecture, drift and growth histories and the nature of its northern suture with Eurasia via the Qiangtang Terrane remain enigmatic. Using zircon in situ U–Pb and Lu–Hf isotopic and bulk-rock geochemical data of Mesozoic–Early Tertiary magmatic rocks sampled along four north–south traverses across the Lhasa Terrane, we show that the Lhasa Terrane has ancient basement rocks of Proterozoic and Archean ages (up to 2870Ma) in its centre with younger and juvenile crust (Phanerozoic) accreted towards its both northern and southern edges. This finding proves that the central Lhasa subterrane was once a microcontinent. This continent has survived from its long journey across the Paleo-Tethyan Ocean basins and has grown at the edges through magmatism resulting from oceanic lithosphere subduction towards beneath it during its journey and subsequent collisions with the Qiangtang Terrane to the north and with the Indian continent to the south. Zircon Hf isotope data indicate significant mantle source contributions to the generation of these granitoid rocks (e.g., ~50–90%, 0–70%, and 30–100% to the Mesozoic magmatism in the southern, central, and northern Lhasa subterranes, respectively). We suggest that much of the Mesozoic magmatism in the Lhasa Terrane may be associated with the southward Bangong–Nujiang Tethyan seafloor subduction beneath the Lhasa Terrane, which likely began in the Middle Permian (or earlier) and ceased in the late Early Cretaceous, and that the significant changes of zircon εHf(t) at ~113 and ~52Ma record tectonomagmatic activities as a result of slab break-off and related mantle melting events following the Qiangtang–Lhasa amalgamation and India–Lhasa amalgamation, respectively. These results manifest the efficacy of zircons as a chronometer (U–Pb dating) and a geochemical tracer (Hf isotopes) in understanding the origin and histories of lithospheric plates and in revealing the tectonic evolution of old orogenies in the context of plate tectonics.
►The central Lhasa subterrane was once a microcontinent with ancient basement rocks of Proterozoic and Archean ages, whereas the southern and northern portions are more recently accreted subterranes during its journey of drift across the Tethyan Ocean basins.►Much of the Mesozoic magmatism in the Lhasa Terrane may be associated with the southward Bangong–Nujiang Tethyan seafloor subduction beneath the Lhasa Terrane, which likely began in the late Middle Permian (~263Ma or earlier) and ceased in the late Early Cretaceous (~113Ma).►The Neo-Tethyan Ocean seafloor must have subducted northward beneath the southern Lhasa subterrane, which likely initialized in the very Early Cretaceous.►The significant changes of zircon εHf(t) at ~113 and ~52Ma record tectonomagmatic activities as a result of slab break-off and related mantle melting events following the Qiangtang–Lhasa amalgamation and India–Lhasa amalgamation, respectively.
The Lhasa terrane in southern Tibet is composed of Precambrian crystalline basement, Paleozoic to Mesozoic sedimentary strata and Paleozoic to Cenozoic magmatic rocks. This terrane has long been ...accepted as the last crustal block to be accreted with Eurasia prior to its collision with the northward drifting Indian continent in the Cenozoic. Thus, the Lhasa terrane is the key for revealing the origin and evolutionary history of the Himalayan–Tibetan orogen. Although previous models on the tectonic development of the orogen have much evidence from the Lhasa terrane, the metamorphic history of this terrane was rarely considered. This paper provides an overview of the temporal and spatial characteristics of metamorphism in the Lhasa terrane based mostly on the recent results from our group, and evaluates the geodynamic settings and tectonic significance. The Lhasa terrane experienced multistage metamorphism, including the Neoproterozoic and Late Paleozoic HP metamorphism in the oceanic subduction realm, the Early Paleozoic and Early Mesozoic MP metamorphism in the continent–continent collisional zone, the Late Cretaceous HT/MP metamorphism in the mid-oceanic ridge subduction zone, and two stages of Cenozoic MP metamorphism in the thickened crust above the continental subduction zone. These metamorphic and associated magmatic events reveal that the Lhasa terrane experienced a complex tectonic evolution from the Neoproterozoic to Cenozoic. The main conclusions arising from our synthesis are as follows: (1) The Lhasa block consists of the North and South Lhasa terranes, separated by the Paleo-Tethys Ocean and the subsequent Late Paleozoic suture zone. (2) The crystalline basement of the North Lhasa terrane includes Neoproterozoic oceanic crustal rocks, representing probably the remnants of the Mozambique Ocean derived from the break-up of the Rodinia supercontinent. (3) The oceanic crustal basement of North Lhasa witnessed a Late Cryogenian (~650Ma) HP metamorphism and an Early Paleozoic (~485Ma) MP metamorphism in the subduction realm associated with the closure of the Mozambique Ocean and the final amalgamation of Eastern and Western Gondwana, suggesting that the North Lhasa terrane might have been partly derived from the northern segment of the East African Orogen. (4) The northern margin of Indian continent, including the North and South Lhasa, and Qiangtang terranes, experienced Early Paleozoic magmatism, indicating an Andean-type orogeny that resulted from the subduction of the Proto-Tethys Ocean after the final amalgamation of Gondwana. (5) The Lhasa and Qiangtang terranes witnessed Middle Paleozoic (~360Ma) magmatism, suggesting an Andean-type orogeny derived from the subduction of the Paleo-Tethys Ocean. (6) The closure of Paleo-Tethys Ocean between the North and South Lhasa terranes and subsequent terrane collision resulted in the formation of Late Permian (~260Ma) HP metamorphic belt and Triassic (220Ma) MP metamorphic belt. (7) The South Lhasa terrane experienced Late Cretaceous (~90Ma) Andean-type orogeny, characterized by the regional HT/MP metamorphism and coeval intrusion of the voluminous Gangdese batholith during the northward subduction of the Neo-Tethyan Ocean. (8) During the Early Cenozoic (55–45Ma), the continent–continent collisional orogeny has led to the thickened crust of the South Lhasa terrane experiencing MP amphibolite-facies metamorphism and syn-collisional magmatism. (9) Following the continuous continent convergence, the South Lhasa terrane also experienced MP metamorphism during Late Eocene (40–30Ma). (10) During Mesozoic and Cenozoic, two different stages of paired metamorphic belts were formed in the oceanic or continental subduction zones and the middle and lower crust of the hanging wall of the subduction zone. The tectonic imprints from the Lhasa terrane provide excellent examples for understanding metamorphic processes and geodynamics at convergent plate boundaries.
Display omitted
► The Lhasa terrane experienced multistage and multiple types of metamorphism; ► The North Lhasa terrane witnessed a Neoproterozoic HP metamorphism; ► The North and South Lhasa terranes were separated by a Late Permian HP metamorphic belt. ► The South Lhasa terrane witnessed Late Cretaceous HT/MP to Eocene MP metamorphism. ► The Lhasa terranes experienced multistage orogenesis from the Neoproterozoic to Cenozoic.
The Late Cretaceous location of the Lhasa Terrane is important for constraining the onset of India-Eurasia collision. However, the Late Cretaceous paleolatitude of the Lhasa Terrane is controversial. ...A primary magnetic component was isolated between 580°C and 695°C from Upper Cretaceous Jingzhushan Formation red-beds in the Dingqing area, in the northeastern edge of the Lhasa Terrane, Tibetan Plateau. The tilt-corrected site-mean direction is Ds/Is=0.9°/24.3°, k=46.8, α95=5.6°, corresponding to a pole of Plat./Plon.=71.4°/273.1°, with A95=5.2°. The anisotropy-based inclination shallowing test of Hodych and Buchan (1994) demonstrates that inclination bias is not present in the Jingzhushan Formation. The Cretaceous and Paleogene poles of the Lhasa Terrane were filtered strictly based on the inclination shallowing test of red-beds and potential remagnetization of volcanic rocks. The summarized poles show that the Lhasa Terrane was situated at a paleolatitude of 13.2°±8.6°N in the Early Cretaceous, 10.8°±6.7°N in the Late Cretaceous and 15.2°±5.0°N in the Paleogene (reference point: 29.0°N, 87.5°E). The Late Cretaceous paleolatitude of the Lhasa Terrane (10.8°±6.7°N) represented the southern margin of Eurasia prior to the collision of India-Eurasia. Comparisons with the Late Cretaceous to Paleogene poles of the Tethyan Himalaya, and the 60Ma reference pole of East Asia indicate that the initial collision of India-Eurasia occurred at the paleolatitude of 10.8°±6.7°N, since 60.5±1.5Ma (reference point: 29.0°N, 87.5°E), and subsequently ~1300±910km post-collision latitudinal crustal convergence occurred across the Tibet. The vast majority of post-collision crustal convergence was accommodated by the Cenozoic folding and thrust faulting across south Eurasia.
Display omitted
•This work addressed the Late Cretaceous paleomagnetic data lack in the eastern part of Lhasa Block.•Anisotropy-based inclination shallowing correction was used to quantitatively test the extent of inclination deviation.•The Lhasa Terrane was situated at a paleolatitude of 10.8°±6.7°N in the Late Cretaceous.•The India-Eurasia collision occurred at the paleolatitude of 10.8°±6.7°N, since 60.5±1.5Ma.•1300±910km post-collision latitudinal crustal convergence occurred across the Tibet.
PDF
