Nautical charts are an important tool to support safe navigation at sea. Several projections have been studied to develop charts for various maritime applications. Among them, the only Mercator ...projection satisfies the requirements of a nautical chart. However, the disadvantage of Mercator projection is the distortion that increases gradually to both poles. Therefore, Gnomonic charts are used to replace Mercator charts for navigation in some areas. However, the Gnomonic chart does not satisfy the basic requirements of a nautical chart, not built by an equiangular projection and the rhumb line is the curve on the chart. For building the nautical charts, the article will study the theoretical and practical basis of using Gnomonic projection instead of Mercator projection in determining the limit that the distortion of the Mercator projection affects the safe navigation, the conditions which the distortion of a Gnomonic projection has an influence on the safety of navigation in the allowable limits and finally determining the conditions and providing a method of navigation when using the Gnomonic chart instead of the Mercator chart.
Genome sequences from over 200 plant species have already been published, with this number expected to increase rapidly due to advances in sequencing technologies. Once a new genome has been ...assembled and the genes identified, the functional annotation of their putative translational products, proteins, using ontologies is of key importance as it places the sequencing data in a biological context. Furthermore, to keep pace with rapid production of genome sequences, this functional annotation process must be fully automated. Here we present a redesigned and significantly enhanced MapMan4 framework, together with a revised version of the associated online Mercator annotation tool. Compared with the original MapMan, the new ontology has been expanded almost threefold and enforces stricter assignment rules. This framework was then incorporated into Mercator4, which has been upgraded to reflect current knowledge across the land plant group, providing protein annotations for all embryophytes with a comparably high quality. The annotation process has been optimized to allow a plant genome to be annotated in a matter of minutes. The output results continue to be compatible with the established MapMan desktop application.
MapMan4 is a substantial redesign of the MapMan framework incorporating the latest literature knowledge to provide greatly enhanced protein family granularity. The online Mercator4 tool uses this framework to rapidly functionally annotate protein sequences from any land plant species.
ABSTRACT In books and textbooks on map projections, cylindrical, conic and azimuthal projections are usually considered separately. The goal of this article is to show in a rigorous and systematic ...way how to generally approach solving the problem of transition from a conic to a corresponding cylindrical projection. Following his idea, this paper shows that not only conformal, but also equal-area and equidistant cylindrical projections can be derived from corresponding conic map projections. KLJUČNE BESEDE kartografska projekcija, konusna projekcija, cilindrična proekcija KEYWORDS map projection, conic projection, cylindrical projection 1 MOTIVATION AND INTRODUCTION In books and textbooks on map projections, cylindrical, conic and azimuthal projections are usually considered separately, and sometimes it is mentioned that cylindrical and azimuthal projections can be interpreted as limiting cases of conic projections (Lee, 1944; Kavrayskiy, 1958, 1959; Jovanovic, 1983; Vakhrameyeva et al., 1986; Snyder, 1987; Kuntz, 1990; Canters, 2002; Monmonier, 2004; Serapinas, 2005), but it is rarely attempted to prove (Lambert, 1772; Hinks, 1912; Hoschek, 1969; Daners, 2012). The goal of this article is to show in a rigorous and systematic way how to generally approach solving the problem of transition from a conic to a corresponding cylindrical projection. Final section presents concluding remarks. 2 LAMBERT'S DERIVATION OF THE MERCATOR PROJECTION AS A SPECIAL CASE OF THE CONFORMAL CONIC PROJECTION The beginnings of the theory of mapping one surface to another belong to Johann Heinrich Lambert (1728-1777), who dealt with the general problem of mapping a sphere and an ellipsoid into a plane in the chapter Anmerkungen und Zusätze zur Entwerfung der Land und Himmelscharten (Notes and additions to the establishment of maps of the Earth and the Sky) printed in to the third part of his Beyträge zum Gebrauche der Mathematik und deren Anwendung (Contributions to the use of mathematics and its application) (Lambert, 1772).
The Mercator effect is the widespread and persistent belief among cartographers and others that people's global-scale cognitive maps are distorted in a particular way because of their exposure to ...world maps displayed with the common Mercator projection. In particular, such exposure has been claimed to lead people to believe that polar regions, such as Greenland, are much larger than they really are, relative to equatorial regions. Recent studies, however, have found no evidence for a Mercator effect on recalled areas for world regions. Given that a version of the Mercator projection known as the Web Mercator has been used for Web mapping in the last couple of decades, we carried out a replication with samples at two universities, but we also asked respondents to estimate great-circle directions ("as a jet would fly") from their home city to several other world cities. We again find no support for a Mercator effect on areas estimated from memory, but our novel collection of spherical direction estimates provides clear evidence of a Mercator effect (or that of a similar rectangular projection) on directional beliefs. These results confirm that cognitive maps are not unitary, analogue mental structures but collections of beliefs stored in different formats in separate mental structures that are not necessarily mutually coordinated and integrated. We also introduce a survey of map use that focuses on digital maps and their use for local versus global geographic inquiries.
Online interactive maps have become a popular means of communicating with spatial data. In most online mapping systems, Web Mercator has become the dominant projection. While the Mercator projection ...has a long history of discussion about its inappropriateness for general-purpose mapping, particularly at the global scale, and seems to have been virtually phased out for general-purpose global-scale print maps, it has seen a resurgence in popularity in Web Mercator form. This article theorizes on how Web Mercator came to be widely used for online maps and what this might mean in terms of data display, technical aspects of map generation and distribution, design, and cognition of spatial patterns. The authors emphasize details of where the projection excels and where it does not, as well as some of its advantages and disadvantages for cartographic communication, and conclude with some research directions that may help to develop better solutions to the problem of projections for general-purpose, multi-scale Web mapping.
Two-dimensional gel electrophoresis (2DE) is a proven high-resolution separation technology in the protein laboratory. Nevertheless, ever since its invention the technique has had the drawback of low ...reproducibility. For protein expression analysis based on replicates, differential gel electrophoresis (DIGE) has, therefore, been invented. This technique is however not applicable for the comparison of singular samples. With comparative fluorescence 2DE (CoFGE) a method was developed, which creates a protein reference net for gel matching on top of the gel-separated protein analyte. This internal standard enables both the correction of the protein spot coordinates and the estimation of the analyte concentration. It extends the use of 2DE and truly enables the use of searchable, browser-based 2DE databases.
•Two-dimensional gel electrophoresis (2DE) is a major separation tool in the life sciences.•DIGE (differential gel electrophoresis) ensures reproducibility in protein expression analysis.•Comparative fluorescence 2DE (CoFGE) introduces standardisation by using a reference grid.•CoFGE generates reproducible protein spot coordinates in singular experiments supporting 2DE databases.•CoFGE allows quantification via the internal standard.
In the middle of 1990s, Google made available world maps which can be zoomed in to the largest scales, with the maps collectively named Google Maps. Google Maps is primarily intended to facilitate ...navigation by car, public transport, bicycle, airplane or on foot. Such maps require a conformal or approximately conformal projection because it is important that e.g. perpendicular streets in any city in the world also appear approximately perpendicular on the map. To make orientation easier, it is important that north always points to the same direction on a map. The same requirements apply to maritime and aerial navigation, where advantages of the Mercator projection have been known for almost 500 years.
En 1569, le cartographe hollandais Gérard Mercator publiait une projection qui allait révolutionner la navigation maritime. Bien que l’importance de la projection de Mercator soit soulignée dans la ...documentation existante, la façon dont elle en est venue à jouer un rôle prépondérant dans la production de cartes du monde en cartographie thématique et en cartographie de référence n’a pas retenu l’attention. L’institutionnalisation de la projection de Mercator dans la cartographie de l’Europe occidentale et des États-Unis découle du rôle joué par les navigateurs, les sociétés et les organismes scientifiques, ainsi que les producteurs de cartes de référence et de cartes thématiques de même que d’atlas à l’usage du public. Les données, que l’auteure soumet à une analyse de contenu, proviennent du registre de publication de cartes du monde individuelles et apparaissant dans les atlas, et elles sont comparées et confrontées aux données historiques de sources complémentaires. L’étude révèle que l’utilisation impropre de la projection de Mercator a commencé après 1700, au moment où elle a été rattachée aux travaux des scientifiques auprès des navigateurs et à la création de la cartographie thématique. Au cours du dix-huitième siècle, la projection de Mercator a été diffusée dans les publications et les rapports destinés aux sociétés de géographie qui décrivaient les explorations financées par l’État. Au dix-neuvième siècle, l’influence de scientifiques bien connus faisant usage de la projection de Mercator a filtré dans les publications destinées au grand public. L’utilisation de la projection de Mercator dans la production de cartes du monde en cartographie de référence et en cartographie thématique est un choix qui résultait de la validation indirecte de cette projection par les milieux scientifique et universitaire depuis le dix-huitième siècle jusque tard au dix-neuvième siècle.
This study assessed how global map projections affect perceptions of the importance of world regions and beliefs about geopolitical events. We tested whether the Mercator projection, which represents ...polar regions as being larger than their actual landmass, compared to the Gall-Peters projection, an equal-area map that represents landmass proportionately, alters evaluations of the U.S.' proposal to purchase Greenland. In a 2 (map projection: Mercator vs. Gall-Peters) × 2 (emphasis frame: economic vs. national security) experiment, we found that people attributed greater importance to Russia after viewing the Mercator projection only when the arguments paired with the map adopted a national security frame. This perception mediated effects of the experimental interaction on attitude toward, support for, and perceived ethics of the purchase.
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