ABSTRACT
Despite extensive study of poisonous and venomous organisms and the toxins they produce, a review of the literature reveals inconsistency and ambiguity in the definitions of ‘poison’ and ...‘venom’. These two terms are frequently conflated with one another, and with the more general term, ‘toxin.’ We therefore clarify distinctions among three major classes of toxins (biological, environmental, and anthropogenic or man‐made), evaluate prior definitions of venom which differentiate it from poison, and propose more rigorous definitions for poison and venom based on differences in mechanism of delivery. We also introduce a new term, ‘toxungen’, thereby partitioning toxic biological secretions into three categories: poisons lacking a delivery mechanism, i.e. ingested, inhaled, or absorbed across the body surface; toxungens delivered to the body surface without an accompanying wound; and venoms, delivered to internal tissues via creation of a wound. We further propose a system to classify toxic organisms with respect to delivery mechanism (absent versus present), source (autogenous versus heterogenous), and storage of toxins (aglandular versus glandular). As examples, a frog that acquires toxins from its diet, stores the secretion within cutaneous glands, and transfers the secretion upon contact or ingestion would be heteroglandular–poisonous; an ant that produces its own toxins, stores the secretion in a gland, and sprays it for defence would be autoglandular–toxungenous; and an anemone that produces its own toxins within specialized cells that deliver the secretion via a penetrating wound would be autoaglandular–venomous. Adoption of our scheme should benefit our understanding of both proximate and ultimate causes in the evolution of these toxins.
IntroductionMethanol intoxication is a public health problem in developing countries and can be ingested accidentally or with suicidal intent, leading to intoxication in isolated or collective forms. ...Methanol is used as a substitute for ethyl alcohol in several adulterated alcoholic beverages such as “eau de vie”, which is a drink distilled from dried fruits, such as dates, grapes and figs. Inside the body, it is metabolised into formic acid which, if left untreated, affects brain tissue, leads to blindness and can also cause death.ObjectivesThe objective of this retrospective study of a series of cases was to describe the epidemiological characteristics of methanol “eau de vie” poisoning cases collected by the Anti-Poison and Pharmacovigilance Centre of Morocco between 2013 and 2020 and to explain these results.MethodsThis is a descriptive and retrospective cross-sectional study over a period of 7 years from 1 January 2013 to 31 December 2020, which concerned 16 cases of intoxication by methanol “eau de vie” reported to the Anti-Poison and Pharmacovigilance Centre of Morocco, the study population concerned the entire Moroccan population throughout the territory of Morocco. The analysis concerned the frequency, the distribution in time, the distribution in space, the characteristics of the intoxicated, the type and circumstances of the intoxication and its evolution.ResultsThe CAPM recorded, during the study period, 16 cases of intoxication by methanol “Eau de vie” in Morocco. These cases were reported by telephone in 93.75% of the cases and collected by studies on hospital registers in 6.25% of the cases. Men were more affected than women. The most affected age group was adults, accounting for 50%. Adolescents accounted for 37% of cases and children for 13%. Drug addiction was the most frequent circumstance, followed by accidental intoxication and voluntary intoxication. The most frequently encountered signs were gastrointestinal signs followed by central and peripheral nervous system signs and heart rate and rhythm disorders. The outcome was favourable in 62% of cases, 6% with blindness after-effects and death occurred in 19% of cases.ConclusionsMethanol poisoning can result from the consumption of illegal products containing methanol such as brandy, hence the importance of raising public awareness of this danger. It is also necessary to make health professionals aware of the clinical signs of methanol poisoning and what to do in the event of intoxication.Disclosure of InterestNone Declared
Tetrodotoxins (TTXs) are potent neurotoxins named after the Tetraodontidae fish family. The ingestion of TTX-contaminated flesh can cause neurotoxic symptoms and can lead to death. In 2017 symptoms ...the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) recognized the threat to food safety resulting from TTX exposure via food consumption and, thus, proposed a safety limit of 44 μg/kg of TTX in marine gastropods and bivalves. To date, however, TTXs have not yet been included in the list of biotoxins to be monitored within the European Union, even though, in a few cases, levels of TTX found were higher than the EFSA limit. The origin of TTX production is debated and the roles of both biotic and abiotic factors on TTX-mediated toxic events remain unclear. In order to meet these knowledge requests the present study was aimed to investigate the role of seawater temperature, pH, water conductivity, and oxygen saturation, along with the marine phytoplankton community and the bacterial community of mussels and oysters on the accumulation of TTX and analogues in the bivalves. Abiotic parameters were measured by means of a multi-parametric probe, phytoplankton community was analyzed by optic microscopy while microbial community was described by amplicon metataxonomic sequencing, TTXs concentration in the collected matrices were measured by HILIC-MS/MS.
A possible role of seawater pH and temperature, among the investigated abiotic factors, in regulating the occurrence of TTXs was found. Regarding biotic variables, a possible influence of Vibrio, Shewanella and Flavobacteriaceae in the occurrence of TTXs was found. Concurrently, Prorocentrum cordatum cell numbers were correlated to the incidence of TTX in mussels. The results herein collected suggest that environmental variables play a consistent part in the occurrence of TTX in the edible bivalve habitats, and there are also indications of a potential role played by specific bacteria taxa in association with phytoplankton.
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•Temperature and pH involved in the occurrence of tetrodotoxin in marine bivalves.•Vibrio, Shewanella and Flavobacteriaceae are potentially related to TTXs occurrence.•Prorocentrum cordatum still suspected to be involved in tetrodotoxin production.
50 & 100 years ago
Nature (London),
05/2009, Letnik:
459, Številka:
7245
Journal Article
Recenzirano
Odprti dostop
By Prof. James S. Allen - This small book gives an excellent description of experimental work on the neutrino, which only in the past few years has been shown to have any direct physical property ...apart from balancing energy, momentum and spin in β-decays.
In seinem 1820 erschienenen Buch „A Treatise on Adulteration of Food and Culinary Poisons“ (Von der Verfälschung von Nahrungsmitteln und von Küchengiften) beschrieb Fredrick Accum (1769–1838), wie ...jeder Bürger mit einfachen Mitteln die schlimmsten der damals üblichen Verfälschungen seiner Nahrungsmittel zuverlässig erkennen konnte. Als Vorreiter des Verbraucherschutzes hätte Fredrick Accum dafür einen Ehrenplatz in der Geschichte der Lebensmittelchemie verdient. Aber es kam anders. Kurz nach Erscheinen des Buches wurde sein Ruf in wenigen Wochen völlig ruiniert. Er verlor seine große Popularität, seine Freunde und wurde letztlich aus seiner Wahlheimat England vertrieben. Dann versank sein Name in Vergessenheit. Warum?
This is the 39
Annual Report of America's Poison Centers' National Poison Data System (NPDS). As of 1 January, 2021, all 55 of the nation's poison centers (PCs) uploaded case data automatically to ...NPDS. The upload interval was 4.87 4.38, 8.62 (median 25%, 75%) minutes, effectuating a near real-time national exposure and information database and surveillance system.
We analyzed the case data tabulating specific indices from NPDS. The methodology was similar to that of previous years. Where changes were introduced, the differences are identified. Cases with medical outcomes of death were evaluated by a team of medical and clinical toxicologist reviewers using an ordinal scale of 1-6 to assess the Relative Contribution to Fatality (RCF) of the exposure.
In 2021, 2,851,166 closed encounters were logged by NPDS: 2,080,917 human exposures, 62,189 animal exposures, 703,086 information requests, 4,920 human confirmed nonexposures, and 54 animal confirmed nonexposures. Total encounters showed a 14.0% decrease from 2020, and human exposure cases decreased by 2.22%, while health care facility (HCF) human exposure cases increased by 7.20%. All information requests decreased by 37.0%, medication identification (Drug ID) requests decreased by 20.8%, and medical information requests showed a 61.1% decrease, although these remain about 13-fold higher than before the COVID-19 pandemic. Drug Information requests showed a 146% increase, reflecting COVID-19 vaccine calls to PCs. Human exposures with less serious outcomes have decreased 1.80% per year since 2008, while those with more serious outcomes (moderate, major or death) have increased 4.56% per year since 2000.Consistent with the previous year, the top 5 substance classes most frequently involved in all human exposures were analgesics (11.2%), household cleaning substances (7.49%), cosmetics/personal care products (5.88%), antidepressants (5.61%), and sedatives/hypnotics/antipsychotics (4.73%). As a class, antidepressant exposures increased most rapidly, by 1,663 cases/year (5.30%/year) over the past 10 years for cases with more serious outcomes.The top 5 most common exposures in children age 5 years or less were cosmetics/personal care products (10.8%), household cleaning substances (10.7%), analgesics (8.16%), dietary supplements/herbals/homeopathic (7.00%), and foreign bodies/toys/miscellaneous (6.51%). Drug identification requests comprised 3.64% of all information contacts. NPDS documented 4,497 human exposures resulting in death; 3,809 (84.7%) of these were judged as related (RCF of 1-Undoubtedly responsible, 2-Probably responsible, or 3-Contributory).
These data support the continued value of PC expertise and the need for specialized medical toxicology information to manage more serious exposures. Unintentional and intentional exposures continue to be a significant cause of morbidity and mortality in the US. The near real-time status of NPDS represents a national public health resource to collect and monitor US exposure cases and information contacts. The continuing mission of NPDS is to provide a nationwide infrastructure for surveillance for all types of exposures (e.g., foreign body, infectious, venomous, chemical agent, or commercial product), and the identification and tracking of significant public health events. NPDS is a model system for the near real-time surveillance of national and global public health.
Veterinary Toxicology, 2nd edition is a unique single reference that teaches the basic principles of veterinary toxicology and builds upon these principles to offer an essential clinical resource for ...those practicing in the field. This reference book is thoroughly updated with new chapters and the latest coverage of topics that are essential to research veterinary toxicologists, students, professors, clinicians and environmentalists. Key areas include melamine and cyanuric acid, toxicogenomics, veterinary medical geology, toxic gases, toxicity and safety evaluation of new veterinary pharmaceuticals and much more. The 2nd edition of this popular book represents the collective wisdom of leading contributors worldwide and continues to fill an undeniable need in the literature relating to veterinary toxicology.
The COVID-19 pandemic increased demand for alcohol-based hand sanitizers. We aimed to describe the epidemiological trends in pediatric alcohol-based hand sanitizer cases reported to United States ...poison centers. We characterized clinically significant pediatric reports involving alcohol-based hand sanitizer products before and during the pandemic and methanol-containing hand sanitizers during the pandemic.
We included all single-substance cases involving alcohol-based hand sanitizers reported to the National Poison Data System among children ≤ 19 years from 1 January 2017 to 31 December 2021, and methanol-containing hand sanitizers from 23 June 2020 to 31 December 2021. Multiple product exposures and non-human exposures were excluded. Clinically significant outcomes included moderate or major effects or death.
There were 95,718 alcohol-based hand sanitizer pediatric cases during the study period. Most (n = 89,521; 94%) were unintentional, occurred by ingestion (n = 89,879; 93.9%), occurred at home, and were managed at the exposure site (n = 89,774; 93.8%). Common symptoms were vomiting (n = 2,969; 3.1%), coughing (n = 1,102; 1.2%), ocular irritation (n = 1,244; 1.3%), and drowsiness (n = 981; 1.0%). Most children (n = 3,937; 66.2%) managed at a health care facility were treated and released; a minority were admitted (n = 527; 9.0%). Few children (n = 81; 1.4%) were admitted to the intensive care unit. The prevalence of clinically significant cases increased in 2020 and 2021, compared to 2017. Population-adjusted rates, by state, of alcohol-based hand sanitizer cases ranged from 280 to 2,700 per million children. Of the 540 reported cases involving methanol-containing hand sanitizers, the majority (n = 255) occurred in July 2020. Thirteen cases (2.4%) had clinically significant outcomes. The prevalence of clinically significant cases remained similar in 2020 and 2021 and exhibited lower prevalence compared to alcohol-based products. Population-adjusted rates, by state, ranged from fewer than 0.9 to 40 per million children.
Clinically significant pediatric cases involving alcohol-based hand sanitizers increased during the pandemic and remained elevated in 2021. Cases involving methanol-containing products were less frequent. Our findings may inform heightened product quality control and regulatory oversight.
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