In the current study, late Chinese-English bilinguals performed a facial expression identification task with emotion words in the task-irrelevant dimension, in either their first language (L1) or ...second language (L2). The investigation examined the automatic access of the emotional content in words appearing in more than one language. Significant congruency effects were present for both L1 and L2 emotion word processing. Furthermore, the magnitude of emotional face-word Stroop effect in the L1 task was greater as compared to the L2 task, indicating that in L1 participants could access the emotional information in words in a more reliable manner. In summary, these findings provide more support for the automatic access of emotional information in words in the bilinguals' two languages as well as attenuated emotionality of L2 processing.
Internet addiction (IA) has been related to psychiatric problems such as ADHD. However, it is not known exactly how this relationship operates, although most research shows that both people with ADHD ...and IA have inhibitory control (IC) deficit. This study aimed to investigate whether IC mediates or moderates the relationship. 76 non-clinically diagnosed participants were recruited. They performed the Stroop task and completed the Young's Internet Addiction Test, Adult ADHD Self-Report Scale Symptom Checklist and a Demographic Information Form. Consistent with previous research, the results show that while total ADHD/inattention was correlated with IA, hyperactivity/impulsivity was not. In contrast with some previous research, Stroop task performance (measured via reaction times and pupil dilation) did not differ between low and high IA groups, nor low and high inattention groups. Despite neither inattention nor IA between associated with IC impairments, the relationship between inattention and IA was shown to be moderated by Stroop task performance in that the relationship was present mainly in those who experience high and moderate IC deficits. This finding could have implications for both ADHD and IA at higher levels of severity and could help guide prevention and treatment options in those most vulnerable to IA.
Using the Regulative Theory of Temperament, this study aimed to identify relationships between two temperamental traits – activity and emotional reactivity – and functional connectivity of the ...amygdala and the anterior cingulate cortex during the Affective Stroop task. Participants were 84 young adults (42 women) aged 19–25. Emotional reactivity was negatively related to connectivity between the right amygdala and the left lateral occipital cortex, right cerebellum, and left inferior frontal gyrus (IFG) as well as right rostral anterior cingulate cortex (rACC)–frontal pole connectivity. Temperamental activity was related to right amygdala–left subcallosal cortex positive connectivity; and right amygdala–left IFG, and left middle temporal gyrus (MTG) negative connectivity and rACC–cerebellum negative connectivity. The interaction between the two traits was related to the connectivity between the amygdala and right cerebellum, left subcallosal cortex, and left MTG, as well as right rACC–right prefrontal pole connectivity. Our results are in line with previous literature, suggesting diminished cognitive resources among individuals with ineffective regulatory temperamental systems.
•Reactivity is related to connectivity between amygdala and lateral and frontal areas•Activity is related to negative coupling of rACC with cerebellum•Trait interaction is related to negative amygdala-cerebellum coupling•Lessen cognitive resources is a possible effect of ineffective temperamental regulation
Hypnosis is considered a unique tool capable of modulating cognitive processes. The extent to which hypnotic suggestions intervenes is still under debate. This study was designed to provide a new ...insight into this issue, by focusing on an unintentional emotional process: attentional bias. In Experiment 1, highly suggestible participants performed three sessions of an emotional Stroop task where hypnotic suggestions aiming to increase and decrease emotional reactivity towards emotional stimuli were administered within an intra-individual design. Compared to a baseline condition (without hypnotic suggestion), a significant increase in attentional bias was found when a hypnotic suggestion to increase emotional reactivity was administered. In contrast, the bias was eliminated when a suggestion to decrease emotional reactivity was administered. Experiment 2 investigated the effect of session repetition on attentional bias across three successive experimental sessions without hypnosis, and showed that the emotional Stroop effect did not vary across sessions. Hence, session repetition could not account for part of the modulation of attentional bias in Experiment 1. Taken together, the results suggest that specific hypnotic suggestions can influence elicitation of unintentional emotional processing. The implications are discussed regarding the locus of intervention of hypnotic suggestion in cognitive and emotional processes.
The dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC) is a crucial brain region for inhibitory control, an executive function essential for behavioral self-regulation. Recently, inhibitory control has been ...shown to be important for endurance performance. Improvement in inhibitory control was found following transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) applied over the left DLPFC (L-DLPFC). This study examined the effect tDCS on both an inhibitory control and endurance performance in a group of healthy individuals. Twelve participants received either real tDCS (Real-tDCS) or placebo tDCS (Sham-tDCS) in randomized order. The anodal electrode was placed over the L-DLPFC while the cathodal electrode was placed above Fp2. Stimulation lasted 30min with current intensity set at 2mA. A Stroop test was administered to assess inhibitory control. Heart rate (HR), ratings of perceived exertion (RPE), and leg muscle pain (PAIN) were monitored during the cycling time to exhaustion (TTE) test, while blood lactate accumulation (∆BLa−) was measured at exhaustion. Stroop task performance was improved after Real-tDCS as demonstrated by a lower number of errors for incongruent stimuli (p=0.012). TTE was significantly longer following Real-tDCS compared to Sham-tDCS (p=0.029, 17±8 vs 15±8min), with significantly lower HR (p=0.002) and RPE (p<0.001), while no significant difference was found for PAIN (p>0.224). ∆BLa− was significantly higher at exhaustion in Real-tDCS (p=0.040). Our findings provide preliminary evidence that tDCS with the anodal electrode over the L-DLPFC can improve both inhibitory control and endurance cycling performance in healthy individuals.
•Stroop test performance can be improved by targeting the left DLPFC.•Heart rate during exercise was reduced after targeting the left DLPFC.•Perception of effort during exercise was reduced by targeting the left DLPFC with tDCS.•Endurance cycling performance can be improved by targeting the left DLPFC.
•Two experimental designs were compared for the study of unconscious perception.•Brief, target-masked color word stimuli did not produce a Stroop effect.•Stroop task effects increase with increasing ...prime stimulus visibility.•Continuous experimental designs are more informative than a binary design.
Binary vs. continuous conceptualizations of consciousness may have an unstated influence on experimental designs in unconscious perception research. The binary approach aims to compare a conscious condition (e.g., supraliminal, no or weak stimulus masking) to an unconscious condition (e.g., subliminal, heavy stimulus masking). In contrast, continuous designs tend to vary stimulus energy along a near-threshold continuum to determine changes in perception as a function of stimulus energy (or duration). The present study compared two experimental designs, binary vs. continuous, for the influence of target-masked prime stimuli on a Stroop task. The display parameters were inspired by emotional Stroop studies reporting unconscious perception. Neither experiment produced strong evidence of unconscious perception, but the experiment with a continuous design was more informative. We thus recommend sampling a range of near-threshold display parameters to yield straight-forward, unambiguous interpretations.
This study set out to examine the valence effect on the explicit and implicit processing of Chinese emotion-label and emotion-laden words with emotional categorisation task (ECT) and emotional Stroop ...task (EST). Behaviourally, the dissociation between emotion-label and emotion-laden words was only observed in the ECT and was modulated by valence. Neurophysiologically, a negative bias was found in the early perceptual processing stage (N170). In the second processing stage, the dissociation between emotion-label and emotion-laden words was modulated by valence (P2 and EPN). In the elaborate processing stage, the neural dissociation between emotion-label and emotion-laden words was modulated by the processing level (frontal N400 and early LPC). Valence interacted with processing level (late LPC). This study verifies the three-stage model of emotional word processing and extends it by adding two factors-processing level and emotional word type-into the model.
•School-age children with excessive SSB has poor EF and larger cortical activation in the bilateral DLPFC and left Pre-SMA comparing to those who did not.•Significant correlations were observed ...between Stroop performance and cortical activation in the left DLPFC and left Pre-SMA.•Excessive SSB tend to be related to poor EF and this association may be explained by a decrease in the neural efficiency of left DLPFC and left Pre-SMA.•This study provides a foundation for further mechanism research and offers theoretical evidence for guideline recommendations regarding screen time for children and adolescents.
Screen-based sedentary behavior (SSB) is a significant risk factor for the health of school-aged children, and guidelines recommend limiting SSB to 2 hr per day. This study aimed to examine association and potential mechanisms between SSB and executive function (EF) by comparing Stroop performance and frontal hemodynamic responses between children with and without excessive SSB. A total of 70 children aged 10 to 15 years were recruited and divided into two groups: excessive screen time (≥2 hr/day; n = 35; ES group) and normal screen time (<2 hr/day; n = 35; NS group). The Chinese version of the Adolescent Sedentary Activities Questionnaire was used to assess SSB, whereas EF was evaluated using the Stroop task. The frontal hemodynamic responses during the Stroop task were measured using functional near-infrared spectroscopy. The results indicated that the ES group had lower accuracy, longer reaction times, and greater activation in the bilateral dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC) and left pre-supplementary motor area (Pre-SMA) compared with the NS group. Furthermore, significant correlations were observed between Stroop performance and cortical activation in the left DLPFC and Pre-SMA. These findings demonstrate that excessive SSB is associated with poor EF, which may be explained by a decrease in neural efficiency of the left DLPFC and Pre-SMA.
To evaluate the neurodevelopmental outcomes at 5.5 years of age in children who were previously randomized to cow milk–based infant formula (control) or similar formula (milk fat globule membrane + ...lactoferrin) with added sources of bovine milk fat globule membrane and bovine lactoferrin through 12 months of age.
Children who completed study feeding were invited to participate in follow-up assessments: cognitive development across multiple domains (primary outcome; Wechsler Preschool & Primary Scale of Intelligence, 4th Edition), inhibitory control/rule learning (Stroop Task), flexibility/rule learning (Dimensional Change Card Sort), and behavior/emotion (Child Behavior Checklist).
Of 292 eligible participants (control: 148, milk fat globule membrane + lactoferrin: 144), 116 enrolled and completed assessments (control: 59, milk fat globule membrane + LF: 57). There were no group demographic differences except family income (milk fat globule membrane + lactoferrin significantly higher). Wechsler Preschool & Primary Scale of Intelligence, 4th Edition composite scores (mean ± standard error) for Visual Spatial (100.6 ± 1.7 vs 95.3 ± 1.7; P = .027), Processing Speed (107.1 ± 1.4 vs 100.0 ± 1.4; P < .001), and Full-Scale IQ (98.7 ± 1.4 vs 93.5 ± 1.5; P = .012) were significantly higher for milk fat globule membrane + lactoferrin versus control, even after controlling for demographic/socioeconomic factors. Stroop Task scores were significantly higher in milk fat globule membrane + lactoferrin versus control (P < .001). Higher Dimensional Change Card Sort scores (P = .013) in the border phase (most complex/challenging) were detected, and more children passed the border phase (32% vs 12%; P = .039) for milk fat globule membrane versus control. No group differences in Child Behavior Checklist score were detected.
Children who received infant formula to 12 months of age with added bovine milk fat globule membrane and bovine lactoferrin versus standard formula demonstrated improved cognitive outcomes in multiple domains at 5.5 years of age, including measures of intelligence and executive function.
Clinicaltrials.gov: https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT04442477.
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