► De- and re-internationalizations may be caused by internal and external factors. ► Serial nonlinear internationalization does not only occur in project businesses. ► De-internationalization is not ...a sign of failure. ► Subsequent de- and re-internationalizations are normal, especially in small markets.
International business scholars still pay the most attention to two firm types: (1) gradual/step-by-step/Uppsala type internationalizers and (2) international new ventures/born globals. Serial nonlinear internationalizers (SNIs) – firms with several subsequent exits and re-entries or considerable foreign involvement fluctuations – have received almost no attention. This exploratory study aims to contribute to the emerging serial nonlinear internationalization literature by (1) discussing the nature of an Italian machinery producer's serial nonlinear internationalization, (2) explaining why it internationalized nonlinearly and (3) developing research implications. It concludes that despite having had a year or more without export activities in 29 countries (in eight of them twice or more) and activities only in seven countries in 2011, this firm has been relatively successful. Thus, de-internationalization is not automatically a sign of failure. Moreover, subsequent de- and re-internationalizations are normal for other firms besides project businesses, especially if their markets are small and exit/re-entry costs low.
The rising number of Portuguese companies with international operations and growing sectoral diversification has been contributing to the recent international expansion of the Portuguese economy. It ...is important to introduce nuances in these recent developments, as the proportion of international firms and international expansion capabilities are still low. This article presents the results of a research project carried out between 2015 and 2018 focused on studying firm internationalization logics observable in Portugal, in three contributing sectors – retail, construction and information and communications technology (ICT) software development. The results present domestic markets as having a diffluent role, opportunistic client‐ or partner‐following being adopted as dominant expansion logics, and indicate that internationalization processes are valued for their portability and reversibility. Room exists for de‐ and re‐internationalization, resource commitment shifts and non‐linear logics, an expression of managerial attempts to leverage resource constraints and exposure to risk and market uncertainty. Sectoral diversification and the deployment of more flexible organizational modes in internationalizing companies or company groups in Portugal are suggested as relevant and feasible paths to follow, given the different modal forms currently available for most companies to expand.
El número creciente de empresas portuguesas con operaciones internacionales y la creciente diversificación sectorial han contribuido a la reciente expansión internacional de la economía portuguesa. Es importante introducir matices en esta evolución reciente, ya que la proporción de empresas internacionales y la capacidad de expansión internacional son todavía bajas. Este artículo presenta los resultados de un proyecto de investigación llevado a cabo entre 2015 y 2018 centrado en el estudio de las lógicas de internacionalización de las empresas observables en Portugal, en tres sectores contribuyentes: el comercio minorista, la construcción y el desarrollo de aplicaciones informáticas de tecnologías de la información y la comunicación (TIC). Los resultados presentan a los mercados domésticos con un papel difluente, adoptando como lógicas de expansión dominantes el seguimiento oportunista de clientes o socios, e indican que los procesos de internacionalización son valorados por su portabilidad y reversibilidad. Existen oportunidades para la desinternacionalización y la reinternacionalización, los cambios en la asignación de recursos y las lógicas no lineales, como expresión de los intentos de las juntas directivas de aprovechar las limitaciones de recursos y la exposición al riesgo y la incertidumbre del mercado. La diversificación sectorial y el despliegue de formas de organización más flexibles en las empresas o grupos empresariales en proceso de internacionalización en Portugal se sugieren como las vías relevantes y factibles que seguir, dadas las diferentes formas modales disponibles actualmente en la mayoría de las empresas para poder expandirse.
事業の多角化を推進しながら国際的な経営を行うポルトガル企業が増加しており、最近の同国の経済の国際的な拡大に寄与している。国際企業の割合や国際的な展開の能力はまだ低いため、こうした最近の発展に微妙な変化を取り入れることが重要である。本稿では、ポルトガルにおける小売、建設、情報通信技術のソフトウェア開発、以上の3つのセクターの企業の国際化理論に注目した、2015~2018年に実施された研究プロジェクトの結果を提示する。結果から、国内市場には流動的な役割があり、日和見主義的なクライアントまたはパートナーをフォローすることが事業拡大の有力な理論として採用されていることが示され、国際化のプロセスはその可搬性と可逆性で評価されることが指摘される。脱国際化と再国際化、リソースコミットメントの変化、非線形理論、リソース制限を利用しようとする経営的な意図を表現すること、リスクと市場の不確実性への曝露、以上のことに余地がある。ほとんどの企業が拡大のために現在利用できるさまざまな形態を考えると、ポルトガルの国際化企業や企業グループにおけるセクターの多角化とより柔軟な組織形態の展開が、重要かつ実用的で、踏襲するべき方法であることが示唆される。
•The study appraises empirical literature on factors associated with export barriers.•Four explicit- and two implicit- theories capture the discourse.•Thirty-six independent variables and four ...primary export barrier groupings are identified.•Vote counting collates the relationship between the independent variables and export barriers.•Conclusions, implications, and directions for future studies are underlined.
Although research on export barriers spans five decades, no single prior study has systematically reviewed findings in this field. This study enriches the discourse on internationalization through a systematic review of the factors associated with export barriers, the theories underpinning this, and the exact nature of the relationships. Findings indicate the bulk of empirical studies focus on drivers of export barriers. The study identifies thirty-six such variables, falling in the categories of firm demographics, export venture characteristics, managerial factors, environmental and operational factors, and international trading environment. Smaller sub-streams of research investigate export barriers as predictors, mediators, and moderators. A vote counting approach dissects the associations (i.e. positive, negative, and weak) between the various factors and export barriers. Moreover, the study identifies four explicit (i.e. resource-based view, incremental internationalization, network, and institutional theories) and two implicit (i.e. attribution and rationalization) theories underlying the associations. Concerning research design and methodology, the study highlights the underrepresentation of emerging markets, longitudinal studies, cross-national comparisons, and advanced multivariate analytical tools. Finally, the study draws key implications for managers, policymakers, and educators, before setting an agenda for future research.
The paper analyses the selection of the country in which a firm starts internationalization. It proposes that some firms strategically choose a non-sequential internationalization, that is, they ...select a country that is dissimilar to their country of origin for their first foreign expansion. The reason for this is that some firms develop, in their home country, three types of knowledge that are useful to overcome foreign expansion difficulties: knowledge to manage complexity, developed by having multiple operations at home; knowledge to manage differences in competitive conditions, developed by operating in business-to-business industries, and knowledge to manage differences in institutional environments, developed by allying to a foreign firm at home.
•Non-linear internationalization is explained by the role of individuals.•Biases and cognitive-, emotional- and social triggers affect managers’ decisions.•Distinguishes between process and outcome ...of commitment decisions.•Discontinuous internationalization processes are rare.•Disruptive outcomes can occur through incremental commitment processes.
In this conceptual paper, we add to the discourse on the Uppsala model’s (in)ability to explain a firm’s internationalization through non-linear dynamics and discontinuities by highlighting individuals’ behaviors. We include (more) realistic assumptions about cognitive, emotional, and social triggers as well as biases that affect managers’ decision-making. Distinguishing between the process and outcome of resource commitment decisions, we conclude that, though discontinuous internationalization processes are rare, disruptive outcomes can occur through incremental commitment processes.
•Internationalization patterns of five French SMEs are observed over several decades.•The internationalization of SMEs is a process composed of several stages.•The identified stages are characterized ...by increasing, decreasing and re-increasing commitment to foreign markets.•They reflect characteristics of different internationalization models proposed in the literature.•Stages of internationalization can be triggered by internal and external factors.
SMEs attempt to accelerate and diversify their international expansion strategies. The purpose of this article is to identify the internationalization stages followed by traditional SMEs to seize global market opportunities. The authors analyze the internationalization paths of five French SMEs operating in traditional manufacturing industries. The empirical study is mainly based on 66 interviews. The findings indicate that the internationalization process of SMEs continues to follow several stages, but that their commitment to foreign markets may increase, decrease and re-increase. The identified stages, which can be triggered by internal and external factors, reflect characteristics of different internationalization models proposed in the literature.
In this paper, we summarize how internationalization research has evolved over time, where it stands today, and how it might evolve going forward. Specifically, we examine internationalization ...research from earlier times to the present day. We contrast the incremental internationalization characteristic of older multinational enterprises with the early, rapid internationalization of born global firms. The paper summarizes the evolution of research on early internationalization and born global firms, and provides evidence to suggest why this area now has attained legitimacy in scholarly research. We then examine important theoretical issues in born global research and suggest avenues for future research.
Internationalization efforts in higher education have often been categorized according to Jane Knight’s binary of “Internationalization at Home” (IaH) and “Internationalization Abroad” (IA). However, ...a rising number of technology-supported activities have created new opportunities for university internationalization. For example, students can now remain “at home” while using technology to study with an institution or program that is simultaneously located “abroad.” We have conceptualized these activities as a new third category called Internationalization at a Distance (IaD). In this article, we introduce the concept of IaD and outline an in-depth case study of an international distance education provider at scale, the University of South Africa.
•We focus on an exporter’s foreign market entries, exits and re-entries.•Knowledge, networks and decision-making logic intertwine during internationalization.•Lack of knowledge results in effectual ...decisions and “experimenting” with markets.•Knowledge acquisition leads to more causal (plan-driven) decisions and stronger ties.•Experienced firms still exit and re-enter markets, and enter new ones “by chance”.
We focus on the following question: how are knowledge, network relationships and decision-making logic interrelated throughout the internationalization process – foreign market entries, exits and re-entries? We contribute to the internationalization literature, network approach and effectuation theory that have not examined these interrelationships during internationalization – especially de- and re-internationalization – in detail yet. Thereby, we provide a more complete view of internationalization. Based on a single punctuated longitudinal case study, we show that lack of knowledge results in mostly effectual (opportunity-driven) decision-making: finding customers via weak ties, trade fairs and unsolicited export orders and experiencing numerous market exits and re-entries due to “experimenting”. Knowledge acquisition leads to more causal (systematic, plan-driven) decision-making and stronger ties, but serendipitous (“by chance”) entries can still occur, and exiting and re-entering foreign markets may continue. We suggest that managers should network and acquire knowledge actively, use both decision-making logics and accept uncertainty as normal during internationalization.
Our 2004 Journal of International Business Studies article, "Innovation, Organizational Capabilities, and the Born Global Firm" provided a framework for the phenomenon of early and rapid ...internationalization among young, entrepreneurial firms. This work can be characterized as an integration of marketing, entrepreneurial, and capability-based thinking around exporting, positioned as the born global exporter. The article also reported findings from a national study of start-up firms that expanded abroad early in their evolution. In the present commentary, we reflect on the contributions of the 2004 article, review the scholarship on the topic over the past decade, and offer suggestions for future inquiry. While the incidence of early internationalization by firms was a novel concept two decades ago, today such firms are found in abundance in many countries. Yet many unresolved research questions remain, including the crucial topic of what happens to "born global" firms as they grow and mature over time. Similarly, the issue of why some firms internationalize early, others late in their evolution, and still others choose to remain local, is a fundamental question for international business scholarship.
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