Venoms from scorpions, spiders, centipedes, ants, wasps, and bees can be very poisonous, or induce serious allergic reactions. Blood sucking mites, ticks, lice, bed bugs, kissing bugs, sand flies, ...biting midges, black flies, mosquitoes, snipe flies, horse flies, tsetse flies, stable flies, and fleas cause irritation. More seriously, some of them can leave behind pathogens that cause serious diseases. This volume presents the full spectrum of methods necessary for prevention of bites and stings from the worldwide variety of bloodsucking and venomous arthropods. The first step is identification of the problem by identifying the bug, knowing where the bug occurs, and deciding whether or not the problem is seriously connected to health problems. The next step is to build the bugs out of the personal environment of the home and its surrounding property. If those methods do not give complete relief, insecticides can sometimes provide the solution. Barriers like screens and doors can at least help when people are indoors. Outside, clothing can make a big difference, especially if repellents are applied to the cloth. The last resort for people exposed to bloodsucking bugs is to use repellents on the skin. This book provides information that will help in choosing the right repellent among the dozens of natural and synthetic products.
Congenital infections with pathogens such as Zika virus, Toxoplasma gondii, Listeria monocytogenes, Treponema pallidium, parvovirus, HIV, varicella zoster virus, Rubella, Cytomegalovirus, and ...Herpesviruses are a major cause of morbidity and mortality worldwide. Despite the devastating impact of microbial infections on the developing fetus, relatively little is known about how pathogens associated with congenital disease breach the placental barrier to transit vertically during human pregnancy. In this Review, we focus on transplacental transmission of pathogens during human gestation. We introduce the structure of the human placenta and describe the innate mechanisms by which the placenta restricts microbial access to the intrauterine compartment. Based on current knowledge, we also discuss the potential pathways employed by microorganisms to overcome the placental barrier and prospects for the future.
In this Review, Arora et al. focus on proposed antenatal mechanisms of transplacental transmission of known “TORCH” pathogens including Toxoplasma gondii, Listeria monocytogenes, Rubella, Cytomegalovirus, and Herpesviruses, and more recently Zika virus. They also discuss the innate mechanisms by which the placenta restricts microbial access to the intrauterine compartment
Various mitigation measures have been implemented to fight the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic, including widely adopted social distancing and mandated face covering. However, assessing ...the effectiveness of those intervention practices hinges on the understanding of virus transmission, which remains uncertain. Here we show that airborne transmission is highly virulent and represents the dominant route to spread the disease. By analyzing the trend and mitigation measures in Wuhan, China, Italy, and New York City, from January 23 to May 9, 2020, we illustrate that the impacts of mitigation measures are discernable from the trends of the pandemic. Our analysis reveals that the difference with and without mandated face covering represents the determinant in shaping the pandemic trends in the three epicenters. This protective measure alone significantly reduced the number of infections, that is, by over 78,000 in Italy from April 6 to May 9 and over 66,000 in New York City from April 17 to May 9. Other mitigation measures, such as social distancing implemented in the United States, are insufficient by themselves in protecting the public. We conclude that wearing of face masks in public corresponds to the most effective means to prevent interhuman transmission, and this inexpensive practice, in conjunction with simultaneous social distancing, quarantine, and contact tracing, represents the most likely fighting opportunity to stop the COVID-19 pandemic. Our work also highlights the fact that sound science is essential in decision-making for the current and future public health pandemics.
Mass gathering events bring people from across all continents increasing the risk of spread of aerosol transmissible respiratory tract infections. Respiratory tract infections for instance in ...pilgrims attending the world's largest recurring annual pilgrimage, the Hajj are common. We review recent literature on viral and bacterial infectious diseases with special focus on the Hajj.
The prevalence of bacterial and viral infections continue to increase, because of the acquisition of rhinovirus, coronaviruses (229E, HKU1, OC43), influenza A H1N1, Streptococcus pneumoniae, Haemophilus influenzae and Staphylococcus aureus during Hajj. Whilst MERS-CoV continues to circulate in the Middle East, no cases of MERS-CoV have yet been identified in pilgrims during Hajj.
Respiratory tract infections are a major cause of morbidity in pilgrims attending mass gathering events. The management of severe respiratory infections should consider investigation and empirical coverage for the most likely agents based on syndromic surveillance data from hosting country and /or other relevant exposure history during events. Pneumococcal and Pertussis vaccines should be recommended for Hajj pilgrims.
Over the ages, human societies have altered local ecosystems and modified regional climates. Today, the human influence has attained a global scale. This reflects the recent rapid increase in ...population size, energy consumption, intensity of land use, international trade and travel, and other human activities. These global changes have heightened awareness that the long-term good health of populations depends on the continued stability and functioning of the biosphere's ecological, physical, and socioeconomic systems. The world's climate system is an integral part of the complex of life-supporting processes. Climate and weather have always had a powerful impact on human health and well-being. But like other large natural systems, the global climate system is coming under pressure from human activities. Global climate change is, therefore, a newer challenge to ongoing efforts to protect human health. This volume seeks to describe the context and process of global climate change, its actual or likely impacts on health, and how human societies and their governments should respond, with particular focus on the health sector.
The pandemic of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID‐19) is caused by infection with a novel coronavirus strain, the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS‐CoV‐2). At present, there is ...limited information on potential transmission of the infection from mother to child, particularly through breast milk and breastfeeding. Here, we provide a living systematic review to capture information that might necessitate changes in the guidance on breast milk and breastfeeding given the uncertainty in this area. Our search retrieved 19,414 total records; 605 were considered for full‐text eligibility and no ongoing trials were identified. Our review includes 340 records, 37 with breast milk samples and 303 without. The 37 articles with analyzed breast milk samples reported on 77 mothers who were breastfeeding their children; among them, 19 of 77 children were confirmed COVID‐19 cases based on RT‐PCR assays, including 14 neonates and five older infants. Nine of the 68 analyzed breast milk samples from mothers with COVID‐19 were positive for SARS‐CoV‐2 RNA; of the exposed infants, four were positive and two were negative for COVID‐19. Currently, there is no evidence of SARS‐CoV‐2 transmission through breast milk. Studies are needed with longer follow‐up periods that collect data on infant feeding practices and on viral presence in breast milk.
The objective of this review is to assess available evidence related to the possible transmission of SARS‐ CoV‐2 through breast milk and through breastfeeding (i.e., related bodily fluids, such as blood, sweat, and respiratory droplets) or droplet transmission due to close contact with the infant or young child via skin‐to‐skin exposure or airborne transmission. The review aims to support policymakers in making evidence‐informed global, regional, and national guidelines on infant feeding in the context of the ongoing pandemic.
Dental health care workers are in close contact to their patients and are therefore at higher risk for contracting airborne infectious diseases. The transmission rates of airborne pathogens from ...patient to dental health care workers are unknown. With the outbreaks of infectious diseases, such as seasonal influenza, occasional outbreaks of measles and tuberculosis, and the current pandemic of the coronavirus disease COVID-19, it is important to estimate the risks for dental health care workers. Therefore, the transmission probability of these airborne infectious diseases was estimated via mathematical modeling. The transmission probability was modeled for Mycobacterium tuberculosis, Legionella pneumophila, measles virus, influenza virus, and coronaviruses per a modified version of the Wells-Riley equation. This equation incorporated the indoor air quality by using carbon dioxide as a proxy and added the respiratory protection rate from medical face masks and N95 respirators. Scenario-specific analyses, uncertainty analyses, and sensitivity analyses were run to produce probability rates. A high transmission probability was characterized by high patient infectiousness, the absence of respiratory protection, and poor indoor air quality. The highest transmission probabilities were estimated for measles virus (100%), coronaviruses (99.4%), influenza virus (89.4%), and M. tuberculosis (84.0%). The low-risk scenario leads to transmission probabilities of 4.5% for measles virus and 0% for the other pathogens. From the sensitivity analysis, it shows that the transmission probability is strongly driven by indoor air quality, followed by patient infectiousness, and the least by respiratory protection from medical face mask use. Airborne infection transmission of pathogens such as measles virus and coronaviruses is likely to occur in the dental practice. The risk magnitude, however, is highly dependent on specific conditions in each dental clinic. Improved indoor air quality by ventilation, which reduces carbon dioxide, is the most important factor that will either strongly increase or decrease the probability of the transmission of a pathogen.
The power demand increases rapidly in China; however, the areas of huge power demands are of long distance from most areas of abundant energy resource in the country. Therefore, China put in great ...effort to develop ultrahigh voltage (UHV) power transmission systems to optimise its energy allocation. This includes (i) systematically developing key technologies such as overvoltage suppression, external insulation design, and electromagnetic environment control, and (ii) developing key equipment such as UHV alternative current (UHVAC) transformers, circuit breakers, and series compensated equipment, and UHV direct current (UHVDC) converter transformers, smoothing reactors, converter valves, and DC transmission control and protection systems. Eight AC UHV projects and 11 DC UHV projects have been built in China, which play an important role in the optimal allocation of energy. Plus there are one more UHVAC and three more UHVDC transmission projects in construction, while UHVAC gas-insulated lines will be applied in the UHVAC line crossover the Yangtze River and the ±1100 kV UHVDC power transmission technology is in development. Here, the development and application of UHV power transmission technologies in China are described, some main challenges the UHV projects encountered are discussed, and experiences obtained from the operation of UHV systems are introduced. It is concluded that China obtained mature experience in developing, constructing, and operating UHV systems and successfully realised long-distance, large-capacity power transmission, and the UHV power transmission technology has become an important measure for energy allocation in large areas.
Arthropod-borne viruses (arboviruses) have a long history of emerging to infect humans, but during recent decades, they have been spreading more widely and affecting larger populations. This is due ...to several factors, including increased air travel and uncontrolled mosquito vector populations. Emergence can involve simple spillover from enzootic (wildlife) cycles, as in the case of West Nile virus accompanying geographic expansion into the Americas; secondary amplification in domesticated animals, as seen with Japanese encephalitis, Venezuelan equine encephalitis, and Rift Valley fever viruses; and urbanization, in which humans become the amplification hosts and peridomestic mosquitoes, mainly
Aedes aegypti,
mediate human-to-human transmission. Dengue, yellow fever, chikungunya, and Zika viruses have undergone such urban emergence. We focus mainly on the latter two, which are recent arrivals in the Western Hemisphere. We also discuss a few other viruses with the potential to emerge through all of these mechanisms.
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